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/.  '? 


|icport  and  jjrotmlingfi 


OF    THE 


IB  IE  L  ZET  .A.  S  T 


NATURAL  HISTORY  &  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY 


FOR    THE 

JUL     41955 


BELFAST: 

printed  by  alexr.  mayne  &  boyd,  2  corporation  3tree1 

(printers  to  the  queen's  college.) 


r 


Report  and  jjrorcrdingjj 


OF    THE 


IB  IE  L  F  .A.  S  T 


NATURAL  HISTORY  &  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY, 


FOR    Till- 


SESSION    1884-8* 


BELFAST: 

PRINTED  BY  ALEXR.  MAYXK  &  BOYD,  2  CORPORATION  STREET 

(printers  to  the  queen's  college.) 


CONTENTS. 


Annual  Report 

Balance  Sheet 

Donations  to  Museum    ... 

Books  Received 

The  Construction  and  Use  of  Induction  Coils,  by  John  Brown,  Esq 

Old  Japanese  Art,  by  Robert  M.  Young,  Esq. 

A  Recent  Visit  to  America,  by  James  Musgrave,  Esq. 

Eastern  Reminiscences,  with  Lantern  and  Photographic  Illustrations,  by 

Thomas  Workman,  Esq.  (Title  only) 
Electric  Light,  and  Transmission  of  Power  by  Electricity,  by  J.   A 

Greenhill,  Esq.  ... 
Formation  of  a  Stalactite  by  Vapour,  by  J.  Brown,  Esq. 
Wutilation  and  Heating  of  Churches  and  Drying   Rooms,    by    William 

Workman,  Esq.  ... 
Land    Tenure   and  Culture  in   Ancient  Ireland,  by  the    Rev.   Robert 

Workman,  B.D. 
List  of  Office-Bearers 
List  of  Shareholders  and  Subscribers 


1 

4 

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<> 

11 

12 

15 


34 


38 

41 

4l> 


Jtelfast  Natural  Ifistory  and  philosophical  Society, 


EST  ABLI8HED     18S1. 


SHAREHOLDERS. 

1  Share  in  the  Society  costs  £7. 

2  Shares     ,,  ,,       cost  £14. 

3  Shares     ,,  ,,       cost  £21. 


The  Proprietor  of  1  Share  pays  10s.  per  annum  ;  the  proprietor  of  2  Shares 
pays  5s.  per  annum  ;  the  proprietor  of  three  or  more  Shares  stands  exempt  from 
further  payment. 

Shareholders  only  are  eligible  for  election  on  the  Council  of  Management. 

MEMBERS. 

There  are  two  classes,  Ordinary  Members,  who  are  expected  to  read  Papers, 
and  Visiting  Members,  who,  by  joining  under  the  latter  title,  are  understood 
to  intimate  that  they  do  not  wish  to  read  Papers.  The  Session  for  Lectures 
extends  from  November  in  one  year  till  May  in  the  succeeding  one.  Members. 
Ordinary  or  Visiting,  pay  £1   Is.  per  annum,  due  first  November  in  each  year. 

Each  Shareholder  and  Member  has  the  right  of  personal  attendance  at  all 
meetings  of  the  Society,  and  of  admitting  a  friend  thereto  ;  also  of  access  to  the 
Museum  for  himself  and  family,  with  the  privilege  of  granting  admission  orders 
for  inspecting  the  collections  to  any  friend  not  residing  in  Belfast. 

Any  further  information  can  be  obtained  by  application  to  the  Secretary. 
It  is  requested  that  all  accounts  due  by  the  Society  be  sent  to  the  Treasurer. 


The  Museum,  College  Square  North,  is  open  daily  from  12  till  4  o'clock. 
Admission  for  Strangers,  6d  each.  The  Curator  is  in  constant  attendance,  and 
will  take  charge  of  any  Donation  kindly  left  for  the  Museum  or  Library. 


BELFAST 

IRatural  Ibtston?  ant)  philosophical  Society 


ANNUAL    REPORT,    i885. 


The  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Shareholders  of  the  Society  was  held 
on  the  14th  May,  1885,  at  three  o'clock,  in  the  Boardroom  of  the 
Museum,  College  Square  North.  The  following  were  present:  — 
Professor  Cunningham,  M.D. ;  Messrs.  R.  L.  Patterson,  J. P.  ; 
F.  D.  Ward,  J.P.  ;  James  Henderson,  W.  H.  Patterson,  Hon. 
Secretary  ;  John  Brown,  Hon.  Treasurer ;  Robert  Steen,  Ph.D.  ; 
William  Swanston,  John  Hind,  Jun.  ;  and  Joseph  Wright. 

On  the  motion  of  Mr.  Wright,  seconded  by  Mr.  Henderson, 
the  chair  was  taken  by  Mr.  R.  L.  Patterson. 

The  Hon.  Secretary  (Mr.  W.  H.  Patterson)  having  read  the 
advertisement  calling  the  Meeting,  submitted  the  Annual 
Report,  which  was  as  follows  : — 

The  Council  of  the  Belfast  Natural  History  and  Philosophical 
Society  have  now  to  present  to  the  Members  their  Report  of 
the  working  of  the  Society  during  the  year  now  ended. 

The  Winter  Session  was  opened  on  November  4th,  18,84, 
with  a  paper  on  "The  Construction  and  Use  of  Induction 
Coils,"  by  Mr.  John  Brown.  The  second  paper  was  read  on 
the  evening  of  December  2nd,  by  Mr.  Robert  Young,  on  "  Old 
Japanese  Art,"  and  was  illustrated  by  a  series  of  very  fine 
bronzes  and  other  specimens,  lent  for  the  occasion  by  Mr. 
Henry  Matier,  and  other  gentlemen.  The  next  paper  was  read 
on  January  6th,  1885,  by  Mr.  James  Musgrave,  on  <lA  recent 
visit  to  America,  including  the  Yellowstone  Park  and  Colorado." 
The  next  paper  was  read  on  February  3rd,  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Workman,  the  title  was  "  Eastern  Reminiscences."     The  paper 


2  Annual  Report. 

for  the  next  evening  was  read  by  Mr.  John  H.  Greenhill,  on 
the  3rd  March,  the  subject  was  "Electric  Lighting  and  Trans- 
mission of  Power  by  Electricity."  The  attendance  on  this 
occasion  was  so  large  that  many  persons  were  unable  to  gain 
admittance  to  the  lecture-room  ;  Mr.  Greenhill,  therefore,  kindly 
consented  to  repeat  the  lecture.  This  was  done  on  Thursday, 
the  5th  of  March,  before  a  very  numerous  audience.  The  next 
evening  of  meeting  was  March- 24th.  This  was  extra  to  the 
programme  arranged  at  the  commencement  of  the  Session.  The 
readers  were  Mr.  John  Brown,  who  made  a  communication  on 
"  A  Stalactite  formed  by  a  Vapour  ;"  and  Mr.  Wm.  Workman, 
who  read  a  paper  on  "  The  Ventilation  and  Heating  of  Churches 
and  Drying-rooms."  The  last  paper  of  the  session  was  read 
by  the  Rev.  Robert  Workman,  on  "  Land  Tenure  and  Culture 
in  Ancient  Ireland,"  on  April  14th. 

The  work  of  re-arranging  the  Museum  collections  has,  during 
the  past  year,  been  confined  to  the  extensive  series  of  mineral 
specimens.  This  valuable  collection  has  been  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  system  adopted  in  "  Dana's  Manual  of  Mineralogy," 
and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  each  specimen  has  been  furnished 
with  a  label  stating  name  and  locality.  Some  of  the  minerals 
recently  received  from  the  British  Museum  have  been  inserted 
into  their  proper  places,  and  it  is  intended  that  the  remainder 
shall  in  like  manner  be  incorporated  with  the  general  collection. 
This  will  have  the  undesirable  effect  of  still  further  increasing 
the  present  overcrowding  ;  but  in  the  absence  of  additional 
cases  there  is  no  more  satisfactory  method  of  displaying  these 
specimens,  which  include  several  noteworthy  additions  to  the 
existing  stock. 

A  list  of  donations  to  the  Museum,  and  of  reports  and  other 
publications  for  the  Society's  library,  is  to  be  printed  with  the 
present  Report.  The  Council  would  thank  the  various  donors 
for  their  valuable  gifts,  and  would  call  particular  notice  to  the 
series  of  Eastern  weapons  and  works  of  ornament,  presented  by 
Captain  Robert  Campbell,  of  the  "  Slieve  Donard."  The  mem- 
bers will  recollect  that  in  the  previous  years  Captain  Campbell 
was  also  a  donor  of  a  number  of  interesting  objects,  collected  by 


Annual  Report.  3 

him  while  on  his  voyages  at  foreign  ports.  It  is  by  taking  an 
interest  in  this  way  of  a  practical  nature  in  the  Museum  of  the 
town  with  which  they  are  connected  by  birth  or  residence,  that 
persons  can  cause  local  collections  to  be  substantially  benefited. 
The  Council  would  be  gratified  if  other  persons  who  have 
opportunities  would  follow  Captain  Campbell's  example. 

On  Easter  Monday  the  Museum  was  opened  to  the  public  at 
at  charge  of  twopence  for  adults  and  one  penny  for  children,  and 
the  attendance  was,  as  usual,  very  large. 

Your  Council  now  retire  from  office,  and  this  Meeting  will  be 
asked  to  select  fifteen  Members  to  form  a  new  Council. 


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DONATIONS  TO  THE  MUSEUM,  1884-5. 


From  The  Natural  History  Museum,  South  Kensington. 
380  specimens  of  minerals. 

From  Mr.  George  Donaldson,  Belfast. 
Portion  of  a  plank  taken  out  of  the  barque  Rose  on  her  return 
from  the  West  Indies,  and  found  to  be  completely  perfor- 
ated by  the  teredo. 
From  Charles  Murphy,  Esq.,  Rathfriland. 
Four  ancient  querns  formed  of  granite. 
From  John  Moore,   Esq.,  Moore  Fort,   Ballymoney,   and 

Hawks  Bay,  New  Zealand. 
Two  skins  of  Huias  (wingless  birds)  ;  one  specimen  of  Jade. 

From  Joseph  Wright,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 
A  set  of  fossil  sponge  spicules  from  Ben  Bulben. 

From  W.  H.  Patterson,  Esq.,  M.R.I.A. 
Portions  of  an  ancient  urn  found  at  Dundrod,  County  Antrim. 
From    Captain    Robert    Campbell,    Master   of   the   Ship 

''Slieve  Donard." 
Two  Malay  shields,  three  Malay  spears,  one  Malay  walking-stick, 
one  Japanese  walking-stick,  one  Chinese  walking-stick, 
two  Japanese  bronze  candlesticks,  one  Chinese  opium 
pipe,  one  Chinese  tobacco  pipe,  one  Chinese  fancy  dress 
sword  made  of  cash,  one  Japanese  fancy  bowl  with  lid, 
three  foreign  bird  skins,  one  Malay  hat  as  used  in  the 
field. 

From  Rev.  W.  H.  Lett,  M.A.,  T.C.D. 
Portions  of  antlers  of  deer,  found  in  gravel  at  Maralin. 

From  Belfast  Naturalists'  Field  Club. 
Ancient  boat  with  square  stem  and  stern,  formed  out  of  an  oak 
tree  ;  found  at  Lough  Mourne,  County  Antrim,  when 
the  lake  was  drained  in  1883. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  RECEIVED,  1884-85. 


Bath. — Journal  of  Microscopy,     Vol.  3,  part  9,  January,  1884  > 

and  Rules,  January,  1884.  The  Editor. 

Belfast. — Guide  to  Belfast,  &c,  by  Dr.  Esler         The  Author. 

Naturalists'  Field  Club,  Proceedings  for  1879-80,   1881, 

1882.  The  Club. 

Jardine's  Humming  Birds  T.  J.  Mulligan. 

Berlin. — Verhandlungen  der  Gesellschaft  fur  Erdkunde.    Band 

11,  nos.  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  1884  ;  band  12,  nos.  1, 

2,  .3,  1885.  The  Society. 

Boston. — Science  Observer.     Vol.  4,  43,  44,  nos.  7,  8,  1884  ; 

vol.  4,  nos.  9,  10. 

Society  of  Natural  History,  Proceedings.     Vol.  22,  parts 

2  and  3,  1883-84  The  Society. 

Bremen. — Abhandlungen  vom  naturwissenschaftlichen  Verein. 

Band  8,  2nd  heft,  and  band  9,  1st  heft,  1884. 
Breslau. — Zeitschrift  fur  Entomologie  ;  Neue  Folge  Neuntes 

Heft,  1884. 
Brighton. — Brighton   and   Sussex    Natural   History   Society, 
Annual  Report,  1884.  The  Society. 

Brussels. — Societe  Entomologique  de  Belgique. 

(Comptes  Rendus).     1884.  The  Society. 

Comptes-Rendu  des  Seances.     Series  3,  nos.  44,  45,  46, 
1884.  ?he  Society. 

Societe  Royal  de  Botanique  de  Belgique. 
Bulletin,  1884.  The  Society. 

Buenos  Ayres. — Accedemia  Nacional  de  Ciencias  en  Cordoba 
(Republica  Argentina). 
Tomo  6,  entrega  2,  3,  and  4,  1884. 
do.     7,      do.       1,  2,  and  3,  1884. 
do.     8,      do.      1,  1885. 


part  4,   fascicule   3. 

Brachiopoda. 

part  4,   fasciculus  4. 

do. 

part   5,         do.        4. 

The   fossil 

Books  Received.  7 

Buenos  Ayres. — Boletin  de  la  Accedemia  Nacional  de  Ciencias 

en  Cordoba  (Republica  Argentina).     Torao  6,  entrega 
i",  1S84.  The  Academy. 

Calcutta. — Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey. 

Palaeontologica  Indica.     Series  x,  vol.  3,  parts  2,  3,  and 

4,  1884. 
Records.     Vol.  17,  parts  2,  3,  1884. 
Geological  Survey  of  India,  Memoirs.     Series  6,  vol.   1, 
part  4.     The  Labyrinthodont,  from  the  Bigoro  Group. 
Series  10,  vol.  3,  part  5.     Mastodon  Teeth,  from  Perim 
Island. 
Series   13,  vol.   1, 
Do.     13,  vol.   i. 
Do.     14,  vol.  1, 

Echinioida. 
Do.     vol.  21,  parts  2  and  3. 
Report,  vol.  17,  parts  4  ;  and  vol.  18,  part  1.     The  Sin  1 
Cambridge,  U.S.A. — Bulletin  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology. 
Vol.  xi.,  no.  10,  part  3.  "  Acalephs,"  1884. 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology.     No.  2,  3  and  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8,  and  11  of  Geological  Series,  vol.  1,  1881  to  1884. 
Annual  Report,  1883-84.  Tlie  Museum. 

Cardiff. — Report  and  Transactions  Naturalists'  Society.     Vol. 
15,1883.     1884.  The  Society. 

Davenport,    U.S.A. — Proceedings    Davenport    Academy     of 
National  Science.    Vol.  3,  part  3,  1879-81.     1883. 
Elephant  Pipes  in  the  Museum.     1885.      The  Academy. 
Danzig. — Schriften  Naturforschenden  Gesellschaft. 

Neue  Folge  Sechsten  Bandes  Erstes  Heft.     1884. 

The  Society 
Dublin. — Royal  Dublin  Society,  Scientific  Proceedings. 
Vol,  1,  series  2,  parts  20,  21,  23  and  24,  and  2^. 
Vol.  3,  series  2,  parts  1,  2,  and  3. 
Vol.  3,  new  series,  parts  6  and  7. 
Vol.  4,         do.         parts  1,  2,  3,  cmd  4.  The  Society. 


8  Books  Received. 

Edinburgh. — Royal  Physical  Society,  Proceedings  1858-59, 
1859-60,  1860-61,  1861-62,  1874-75,  1875-76,  1876-78, 
1878-79,  1879-80,  1880-81,  1881-82,  1882-83,  1883-84. 

The  Society. 
Elberfeld. — Jahres     Berichte     des     Naturwissenschaftlichen 

Vereins,  sechstes  Heft.     1884. 
Emden. — Achtundsechszigster  Jahresbericht  Naturforschenden 
Gesellschaft,  1882-83.     1884.  The  Society. 

Essia. — Essex  Field  Club,  Transactions.  Vol.  3,  part  8  ;  and 
Appendix,  no.  1.  The  Club. 

Florence,— Bulletino  della  Societa  Entomologica  Italiana. 
Anno  sedicesimo  Trimestri,  1  and  2.     1884. 
Trimestri,  3  and  4.     1884.,  and 
Atti  Anno,  1882  to  1883.  The  Society. 

Genoa. — Giornale   della  Societa   di    Letture   e    Conversazioni 
Scientifiche.     Anno  8,  fasc.  8  and  9.     1884. 
Societa  di  Letture,  &c. 
Anno  8,  fasciculus  12. 

Anno  9,  fasciulus  1  and  2,  3,  4  and  5,  and  1  Supplement. 

The  Society. 

Glasgow. — Proceedings  Philosophical  Society.  Vol.  15,  1883- 
84.     1884.  The  Society. 

Natural    History   Society,   Proceedings.     Vol.    2,   parts 
1  and  2  ;  vol.  3,  parts  1  and  3  ;  Vol.  4,  part  I. 

The  Society. 
Gorlitz. — Naturforschenden  Gesellschaft.     Vol.  18,  j  884- 

Hamburg. — Naturwissenschaftlichen  Verein. 

Abhandlungen.     Vol.  8,  parts  1,  2,  and  3.      The  Society. 

Lausanne. — Bulletin    de   la    Societe    Vaudoise    des    Sciences 
Naturelles.     2nd  series,  vol.  xx,  no.  90,  1884. 
2nd  series,  vol.  20,  no.  9,  1885.  The  Society. 

Lkipsig. — Sitzungsberchte  der  Naturforschenden  Gesellschaft 
Zehnter  Jahrgang,  1883.     1884.  The  Society. 


Books  Received.  9 

Liverpool. — Museums  of  Natural  History,  by  the  Rev.  H.  H. 
Higgins,  M.A.  The  Author. 

London. — Memoirs   of  the   Astronomical   Society.     Vol.   48, 
parti,  1884.  The  Society. 

Journal  Royal  Microscopical  Society.     Series  2,  vol.  4, 
parts  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  1884  ;  vol  5,  parts  1  and  2. 

The  Society. 
More  Leaves  from  the  Journal  of  the  Life  in  the  High- 
lands, by  the  Queen.  1884.  The  Publishers. 
Proceedings  Zoological  Society.  Parts  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 
List  of  Fellows,  to  June,  1884.  1884.  The  Society. 
Illustrations  of  British  Fungi,  by  M.  C.  Cook,  M.A. 
4  vols,  and  13  parts,  no.  18  to  31.  Lord  Clermont. 
Diurnal  Birds  of  Prey,  by  J.  H.  Gurney.  The  Author. 
Asclepiad,  by    B.  W.  Richardson,   M.D.,  F.R.S. 

The  Author. 
Stoechiological  Medium,  by  J.  F.  Churchill,  M.D. 

The  Author. 
A  Guide  to  the  Mineral  Gallery,  British  Museum,  South 
Kensington.  L.  Fletcher. 

Manchester. — Transactions  Geological  Society,  Session  1883-84. 
Vol.  17,  parts  16,  17,  and  18.     1884. 
Vol  18,  nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  The  Society. 

Medical  Chronicle.     Vol.  1,  no.  1. 
Milwaukee. — Natural  History  Society,  Proceedings,  1885. 

The  Society. 
New  York, — Bulletin  American  Geographical  Society.     Parts 
1,  2,  5,  6,  1884.  The  Society. 

Microscopical  Society  Journal.     Vol.  1,  no.  2,  1885. 

The  Society. 

American  Geographical  Society,  Bulletin.    No.  3  and  4. 

.  The  Society. 

Philadelphia. — Proceedings   Academy   of  Natural    Sciences. 

Parts  1,  2,  and  3,  January  to  April,  1884.   The  Academy. 


io  Books  Received. 

Pisa. — Atti  della  Societa  Toscana  di  Scienze  Naturali.     Vol.  4, 
3  parts,  1884-85  The  Society. 

Roma. — Atti   della  R.  Accademia  die  Lincei  Anno  281,  Serie 
Tereza.     Vol.  18,  fascicolo  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  1884. 

The  Society. 

Reale  Accademia   dei  Lincei    Atti,  3   Series.      Vol.  8, 

Fas.   16  Atti  ;  4  Series,  vol.    I,  Fas.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 

7,  8,  9.  The  Society. 

Sondershausen. — Irmischia.      No.   1  and  2,  5,  6  and  7,  8,  9, 
10,  11,  12.  The  Editor. 

Stockholm. — Das  Gehororgan  der  Wirbelthiere.     Von  Gustaf 

Retzius.     Part  2.  The  Society. 

Trieste. — Bolletino  della  Societa  Adriatica  di  Scienze  Naturali, 

Volume  Ottavo,  1883-84. 

Vienna. — Mittheilungen  des  Ornithologischen  Vereines,  1  Jahr- 

gang.     Nos.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,   11,  12,   13,  14,  15,   16,   17, 

18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  28,  1884. 

2  Jahrgang.     Nos.   1,  3,  4,   5,   6,  7,  8/9,   10,  11,  12, 

13,  14,  1885.  The  Society. 

Verhandlungen  der  K.  K.  Geologischen  Reichsanstalt. 

Nos.  4,  s,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  1884  5 

No.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  1885.  Ihe  Society. 

Verhandlungen  der  K.  K.  Zoologish-botanishen  Gessell- 

schaft.     Band  33,  1884  I  and  Band  34,  1885. 
Brasilische  Suagethiere,  1883.  The  Society. 

Verhandlungen    der   K.  K.    Zoologishen  Reichsanstalt. 
Nos.  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  1884.  The  Society. 

Warwick. — Proceedings  Warwickshire  Naturalists'  and  Archae- 
ologists' Field  Club,  1883.  The  Club. 
Washington. — Geological  Survey. 

Second  Annual  Report,  1880-81.     1882.        The  Survey 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  1883. 


II 


BELFAST 

NATURAL  HISTORY  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY, 
SESSION    1884-85. 


4///  November,  1884. 


Professor  Everett  in  the  Chair. 


John  Brown,  Esq.,  read  a  Paper  on 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  OF  INDUCTION 

COILS, 
Illustrated  by  Examples  and  Experiments. 


The  reader  exhibited  a  large  coil  of  his  own  construction,  with 
others  of  various  types  made  by  Mr.  John  Edgar  and  Mr.  John 
H.  Greenhill.  The  principles  and  action  of  coils,  and  the 
advantages  of  the  disc  method  of  building  up  the  secondary 
were  explained,  as  well  as  the  most  efficient  disposition  of  a 
given  amount  of  secondary  on  a  given  magnetic  cone. 

Some  of  the  uses  of  the  Induction  Coil  were  illustrated  by  the 
illumination  of  a  beautiful  set  of  Crookes's  tubes  lent  by  Dr. 
Everett,  the  firing  of  submarine  mines  by  the  secondary  cur- 
rent, etc. 


12 


2nd  December,  1884. 


James  Wilson,  Esq.,  in  the  Chair. 


Robert  M.  Young,  Esq.,  B.A.,  read  a  Paper  on 
OLD  JAPANESE  ART. 


Mr.  Young  divided  his  paper  into  different  sections.  The  first 
was  devoted  to  a  short  sketch  of  the  history  of  Japan  from  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Jimmu,  660  B.C.,  to  the  year  186S,  when 
the  country  was  opened  to  foreigners,  and  that  marvellous  series 
of  changes  was  inaugurated  which  has  transformed  the  country 
from  being  the  most  backward  to  the  position  of  the  most 
civilised  and  enterprising  State  in  the  whole  of  Asia.  The 
lecturer  then  proceeded  to  treat  of  the  feudalism  which  formed 
so  curious  a  part  of  the  internal  economy  of  Old  Japan.  He 
showed  that  it  was  almost  identical  with  the  military  feudalism 
prevalent  in  mediaeval  Europe.  The  daimio,  or  baron,  was  then 
described.  His  territory  and  castle,  with  the  dwellings  of  his 
vassals,  the  samurai,  were  shown  completely  to  resemble  the 
strongholds  of  the  middle  ages,  as  depicted  in  the  pages  of 
Froissart  and  Scott.  The  outline  of  the  most  popular  Japanese 
tale  of  chivalry,  the  History  of  the  47  Ronin,  was  given  to  show 
what  loyalty  and  devotion  were  displayed  by  the  retainers  to 
their  lord  in  critical  times,  death  being  always  preferred  to 
dishonour. 

The  swords  of  the  various  periods  were  described  in  detail, 
and  some  interesting  facts  given  of  the  etiquette  practised  with 
regard  to  that  national  weapon.  A  quotation  was  given  from 
the  "  Romance  of  Prince  Gengi,"  written  by  a  learned  Japanese 


Old  Japanese  Art.  J  3 

kdy  in  the  ioth  century,  to  show  what  advanced  ideas  were 
prevalent  at  that  remote  period  with  regard  to  art.  Even  the 
modern  catchwords  of  "correct  taste  and  high  aesthetic  prin- 
ciples" are  found  in  this  remarkable  novel.  A  few  of  the  leading 
facts  in  the  history  of  Japanese  art  were  then  noted,  particularly 
as  regards  the  life  of  the  Hogarth  of  the  country,  the  renowned 
Hokusai.  By  the  kindness  of  Mr.  W.  H  Patterson,  his  famous 
work,  ''The  ioo  views  of  the  mountain  Fusiyama,"  were 
exhibited,  to  show  his  skill.  After  a  full  explanation  of  the 
general  principles  on  which  their  art  is  founded,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  way  a  Japanese  artist  works,  a  quotation  was  given 
from  Mr.  W.  Anderson,  illustrating  the  distinction  between  the 
ordinary  artisan  and  the  inventor  artist,  who,  gifted  with  talents 
of  a  very  high  order,  designed  and  carried  to  completion  the 
splendid  works  in  bronze,  porcelain,  and  lacquer  which  have 
reached  Europe.  Some  amusing  instances  of  the  marvellous 
skill  said  to  have  been  attained  by  the  old  masters  were  cited, 
such  as  that  of  the  artist  who  drew  a  dragon,  and,  as  he  com- 
pleted the  eye  of  the  monster,  it  rose  and  flew  away.  The 
famous  horse  painted  on  a  temple  screen  was  also  mentioned, 
which  was  nightly  accustomed  to  leave  the  picture  and  roam 
the  rice  fields,  but  was  at  last  recognized,  and  its  ravages  stopped 
by  blotting  out  the  eyes  of  the  masterpiece.  The  different 
substances  employed  in  their  art  industries  were  indicated,  and 
the  concluding  portion  of  the  lecture  was  devoted  to  describing 
the  more  important,  such  as  lacquer,  ceramics,  metalwork,  ami 
enamels.  A  concise  history  of  the  methods  employed  in  lacquer 
was  given,  and  examples  of  this  beautiful  art  shown,  more 
particularly  on  sword  mountings.  A  fine  example  in  the 
possession  of  the  reader  was  exhibited,  with  eight  distinct 
varieties  of  lacquer  used  on  it,  beside  many  other  processes  of 
inlaying  and  other  arts  peculiar  to  Japan.  The  r  iflaarks  made 
on  the  various  kinds  of  pottery  and  porcelain  were  illustrated  by 
specimens  of  each  manufacture.  The  stone  wares  of  Bizen, 
Raku,  and  Soma  were  discussed,  and  the  porcelain  of  Kaga  and 
Kioto  ;  whilst  the  famous  Satsuma  and  its  imitations  were  fully 
explained.     The  subject  of  metal  work  occupied  some  time,  as, 


14  Old  Japanese  Art. 

by  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Henry  Matier,  J. P.,  a  very  choice 
collection  of  the  finest  old  bronze  and  inlaid  work  was  exhibited 
and  described.  Much  satisfaction  was  expressed  among  the 
audience  that  the  late  disastrous  fire  at  Dunlambert  had  not 
materially  injured  any  of  these  masterpieces.  The  subject  of 
bronze  casting  was  entered  into,  and  a  brief  account  given  of  the 
Japanese  process. of  founding,  which  is' similar  to  that  known 
in  Europe  as  "cire  perdu."  The  different  subjects  commonly 
chosen  for  delineation  by  their  craftsmen  were  mentioned 
at  length.  The  religions  and  mythology  of  the  country  were 
briefly  touched  on,  the  seven  favourite  divinities  and  the  five 
monstrous  animals  frequently  found  on  their  art  productions 
being  remarked  on,  and  examples  of  some  of  them  pointed 
out  as  fashioned  in  bronze,  pottery  and  enamels.  The  subject 
of  enamels  was  taken  up  in  the  last  place.  The  superiority 
of  Japanese  work  was  indicated  by  the  comparison  of  some 
examples  of  the  middle  period,  in  the  form  of  plaques  and  vases, 
with  old  Chinese  work.  The  lecturer  then  concluded  by  giving 
a  short  description  of  some  of  the  beautiful  works  in  bronze 
and  other  metals  kindly  lent  for  exhibition  on  the  occasion  by 
Mr.  Henry  Matier,  J. P.  A  large  flower  vase  from  a  Japanese 
temple,  cast  in  bronze,  and  properly  inlaid  with  silver,  having 
panels  on  each  face  in  raised  metals,  one  representing  a  god 
seated  beside  the  national  vehicle,  the  jinrishka,  was  much 
admired.  Another  was  particularly  noticeable  for  the  skill 
with  which  a  dragon,  encircled  by  clouds,  was  depicted.  A 
large  plaque,  with  a  monstrous  cuttle-fish  seizing  an  unfor- 
tunate wretch,  who  has  endeavoured  to  pilfer  a  vase  lying 
on  the  sea  beach,  was  much  remarked  for  the  masterly  skill 
displayed  in  its  manipulation  and  the  precious  metals  used. 
Specimens  of  the  best  work,  in  wrought  iron,  inlaid  with  gold, 
and  chased  in  high  relief,  were  also  shown.  The  incense  burners, 
of  elaborate  bronze  work,  are  unique  of  their  kind. 


is 


6th  January,  1885. 


Professor  Everett  in  the  Chair. 


James  Musgrave,  Esq.,  gave  an  account  of 

A  RECENT  VISIT  TO   AMERICA, 

Including  the  Yellowstone  Park  and  the   Colorado,  illustrated 
by  Photographs. 


Mr.  Musgrave  said,  on  the  7th  August  last  he  left  Liverpool 
with  one  of  his  brothers,  for  New  York,  in  the  Germanic,  one 
of  the  finest  of  that  White  Star  line  of  steamers  of  which  the 
people  of  Belfast  had  reason  to  feel  proud.  His  object  in  pro- 
ceeding to  America  was  two-fold  ;  first,  to  attend  the  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  at  Montreal,  which  would  give  him 
an  opportunity  of  gaining  some  knowledge  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  ;  and,  second,  to  visit,  amongst  other  places,  the  scenery 
which  the  writings  of  Washington  Irving  and  Fenimore  Cooper 
had  invested  with  the  true  spirit  of  romance,  and  to  observe  for 
himself,  even  superficially,  the  people  and  the  institutions  of 
that  wonderful  country. 

Mr.  Musgrave  then  described  a  visit  to  the  Yellowstone  Park, 
which  a  few  years  ago  was  set  apart  by  Act  of  Congress  as  a 
national  park  for  the  American  people.  Mr.  Rigg,  president  of 
the  London  Association  of  Engineers,  had  joined  in  the  trip. 
A  circular  tour  was  arranged  with  the  Northern  Pacific,  the 
Union  Pacific,  the  Chicago  and  Alton,  and  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railways,  a  tour  which,  with  an  extension  into  the 
Denver  and  Rio  line,  he  could  recommend  to  any  one  desirous 
of  seeing  that  country.  He  wished  to  thank  Mr.  Mackenzie,  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  in  Philadelphia,  and  Mr.  Macdougal, 


1 6  A  Recent  Visit  to  America. 

of  the  Northern  Pacific  in  Montreal,  for  their  attention  and  fore- 
thought, which  enabled  the  party  to  accomplish  the  journey 
without  a  single  hitch.  After  giving  some  account  of  the 
journey  through  the  older  parts  of  the  United  States,  he  said  that 
at  Rock  Island  they  crossed  the  Mississippi,  which,  even  at  that 
distance  from  New  Orleans,  is  a  broad  navigable  river.  There 
they  saw  the  Government  arsenal  and  armoury,  which,  as  well 
as  many  private  factories,  are  worked  by  water-power,  derived 
from  a  great  dam  at  Molines.  St.  Paul,  the  capital  of  Minnesota, 
is  one  of  the  most  thriving  towns  in  America,  containing  100,000 
inhabitants.  Minneapolis,  another  town  of  almost  equal  impor- 
tance, is  only  eight  miles  distant,  and,  though  some  jealousy 
exists,  they  are  no  doubt  fated  to  become  one  town.  St. 
Anthony's  Fall  is  the  overflow  from  what  was  said  to  be 
the  greatest  waterflow  in  America.  It  drives  a  large  number 
of  flour  mills,  one  of  which  they  examined  carefully.  It  was  said 
to  turn  out  more  flour  than  any  other  place  in  the  world, 
and  that  they  could  well  believe.  What  surprised  them  most 
was  that  the  country  appeared  richer  than  that  to  the  east  of 
Chicago.  There  were  rich  corn  crops  on  either  side  of  the 
railway,  interspersed  with  small  towns  devoted  to  various  manu- 
factures. He  was  shown  a  factory  where  one  thousand  ploughs 
were  turned  out  every  day. 

From  St.  Paul  they  entered  upon  the  vast  tract  of  prairie 
land  now  so  actively  developing  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
way, through  their  commissioner,  Mr.  Lamborn,  of  St.  Paul, 
who  gave  him  the  maps  now  on  the  table.  Travelling  day  and 
night  through  the  territories  of  Minnesota,  Dakota,  and  Mon- 
tana, they  stopped  at  Amnabar,  the  nearest  station  to  Yellow- 
stone Park,  which  lies  principally  in  the  territory  of  Wyoming. 
The  prairie  was  not  so  flat  as  he  expected  ;  every  here  and  there 
are  hillocks,  with  occasional  groups  of  small  trees.  The 
Missouri  River  is  navigable  for  steamers  up  to  the  town  of 
Bismarck,  and  there  is  a  fine  suspension  bridge  across  the 
Missouri,  connecting  Bismarck  with  Mandan.  At  Dickenson 
they  parted  with  a  fellow-traveller,  who  was  president  of  several 
large  cattle  ranches,  and  the  groups  of  head  ranchemen  and 


A  Recent  Visit  to  America.  1 7 

cow  boys  who  were  waiting  to  receive  him  gave  them  a  very 
favourable  idea  of  the  class  of  men  engaged  in  developing  that 
country.  He  produced  a  newspaper  called  the  Bad  Lands 
Cow  Boy,  which  gave  some  idea  of  the  state  of  society  in  that 
region.  A  special  Pullman  car  was  provided  for  members  of 
the  British  Association  at  St.  Paul.  Sir  Richard  Temple  and 
some  of  his  friends  from  the  Winnipeg  excursion  joined  them 
at  Targo,  and  the  novelty  and  excitement  of  conveying  so  large 
a  company  in  four-horse  "  stages"  from  the  railway  terminus 
over  the  rough  roads  and  through  the  wild  scenery  leading  to 
the  Mammoth  Springs  Hotel  was  a  fitting  preparation  for  the 
extraordinary  country  they  were  about  to  see.  They  had  been 
told  that  that  hotel  cost  ^"40,000.  Everything  was  on  a  large 
scale,  and  the  electric  light  was  used.  It  was  crowded  with  the 
most  picturesque  assembly  of  men  he  had  ever  seen.  Members 
of  the  British  Association  bargaining  for  carriages  to  convey 
them  for  a  week  through  the  park  ;  stage  coach  owners  and 
drivers,  ranchemen,  cowboys,  trappers  ;  most  of  them  in  dis- 
tinctive and  picturesque  dress,  formed  a  scene  he  enjoyed 
greatly.  At  dinner  they  noticed  a  party  of  six  dining  together. 
His  brother  fell  into  conversation  afterwards  with  one  of  them, 
who,  when  he  knew  that  they  were  Britishers,  stepped  out  in 
front  of  them  and  exclaimed,  "  You  are  English  ;  I  love  the 
English  ;  I  am  an  Englishman  myself ;"  and  then  he  described 
how  he  had  been  taken  prisoner  while  serving  in  the  army  of 
Maximilian  in  Mexico,  and  obtained  no  relief  from  the  American 
Consul,  but  when  he  applied  to  the  British  Consul  he  was 
immediately  released,  and  added,  "  Is  it  any  wonder  I  am  proud 
of  being  an  Englishman  ?"  In  the  morning  they  visited  the 
Mammoth  Springs,  which  the  lecturer  then  described,  and 
exhibited  photographs  of  them.  In  the  course  of  their  visit  to  the 
boiling  springs,  they  met  a  noted  photographer,  Mr.  Watkins, 
of  California,  who  was  so  particular  as  to  his  atmospheric  effects 
that  he  kept  his  camera  ready  in  front  of  "  Old  Faithful"  (the 
name  of  one  of  the  springs)  for  two  days,  waiting  for  a  clear 
sky,  as  clouds  would  have  marred  the  picture.  I  laving  stopped 
at  "Marshall's,"  where  they  met  travellers  of  various  nationali- 

I! 


1 8  A  Recent  Visit  to  America. 

ties,  they  made  an  early  start  for  a  long  day's  drive  through  the 
forest  to  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Yellowstone.  The  forest 
consisted  mainly  of  young  trees.  In  some  parts  there  were 
miles  of  space  covered  with  the  black  stems  of  trees,  the  result 
of  forest  fires,  while  the  surface  underneath  was  covered  with 
young  trees  a  foot  or  two  high.  Their  coachman  was  invaluable 
in  these  long  drives,  of  a  class  one  rarely  meets  with  at  home. 
He  was  familiar  with  English  literature,  and  full  of  curiosity  as 
to  England  and  the  mode  of  life  there.  He  had  a  capital  tenor 
voice,  and  they  asked  him  to  sing  the  American  National 
Anthem.  He  struck  up  the  air  of  "  God  Save  the  Queen"  to 
words  which  were  new  to  them,  and  which,  he  thought,  were 
little  known  in  this  country.  He  would  give  them  the  first 
verse  : — 

"  My  country,  'tis  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty, 

Of  thee  I  sing. 
Land  where  my  fathers  died — 
Land  of  the  pilgrims'  pride — 
From  every  mountain  side 
Let  freedom  ring." 

They  all  joined  in  a  hearty  chorus,  .recognising  in  such  an 
apostrophe  to  liberty  wedded  to  our  own  national  air,  another 
tie  of  sympathy  between  the  American  people  and  the  mother 
country,  which  has  been  the  parent  of  liberty  in  its  best  and 
broadest  sense.  Although  very  tired  when  they  reached  the 
tents  near  the  Grand  Canon,  they  started  off  to  the  Falls.  The 
Yellowstone  was  a  considerable  river,  and  the  height  of  the 
lower  fall  is  350  ft.,  more  than  double  that  of  Niagara.  The 
Grand  Canon,  of  which  many  people  spoke  with  the  greatest 
rapture,  surpassed  anything  he  had  seen  of  rugged  scenery.  A 
canon  is  a  water  course  of  immense  depth.  In  Colorado  and 
Wyoming  there  is  so  little  rain  that  the  river  banks  are  not, 
as  in  this  country,  worn  to  an  easy  slope,  but  are  so  precipitous 
that  they  cannot  be  climbed.  In  Yellowstone  Canon  they 
could  not  get  even  half  way  down  to  the  river,  but,  standing  on 
a  projecting  point,  they  saw  the  river  below,  with  steep  cliffs 
rising  to  a  height  of  some  1,200  feet  on  either  side.     The  rocks 


A  Recent  Visit  to  America.  1 9 

were  worn  into  pinnacles  of  the  most  fantastic  forms,  the  pre- 
vailing tone  a  rich  yellow,  but  stained  in  parts  with  colours  so 
brilliant  that  they  saw  Mr.  Thomas  (an  accomplished  artist 
whose  pictures  he  hoped  to  see  at  the  Academy),  who  joined 
their  party,  use  carmine  and  other  vivid  colours  to  produce 
his  effects. 

They  next  journeyed  to  Helena,  Salt  Lake  City,  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  Colorado  Springs,  and  back  to  New]  York  by 
way  of  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  and  Baltimore.  Such  were  some 
of  the  physical  characters  of  the  portion  of  the  American  con- 
tinent through  which  they  travelled.  He  would  conclude  with 
a  few  words  regarding  the  people.  Owing  to  the  unfortunate 
tendency  of  able  writers  to  make  amusing  books  of  travel,  the 
American  people  had  been  too  often  presented  to  them  in  a 
grotesque  attitude.  He  expected  to  see  them  boastful,  talking 
through  their  noses,  and  speaking  a  language  which  was  a 
travestie  of  the  English  tongue.  He  found  them  free  from 
"  brag ;"  the  men  particularly  expressed  themselves  on  all 
subjects  with  moderation,  and  had  much  repose  of  manner, 
while  their  provincialisms  were  not  more  numerous  than  in 
England.  He  was  glad  to  observe  everywhere  a  tone  of  sym- 
pathy for  the  "  Old  Country,"  and  a  desire  to  have  the  good 
opinion  of  the  "  Britisher."  The  American  people  are  tho- 
roughly imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  best  English  literature. 
Their  principal  class-books  are  English.  Sir  Henry  Roscoe 
found  his  "  Chemistry,"  and  their  companion,  Mr.  Rigg,  found 
his  history  of  the  steam  engine,  in  daily  use  in  the  Boston 
colleges.  In  the  gallery  at  Washington  devoted  to  mementos 
of  those  who  worked  for  the  independence  of  the  United  States, 
the  portrait  of  Lord  Chatham  is  placed  by  the  side  of  Lafay- 
ette, and  the  speeches  of  the  former,  and  of  many  other  great 
English  speakers,  give  the  keynote  of  the  best  American  ora- 
tory. A  St.  Louis  gentleman  told  him  that  Thackeray's  portrait 
of  Colonel  Newcome  was  his  ideal  of  what  a  man  should  be. 
He  was  not  long  in  America  till  he  almost  forgot  he  had  crossed 
the  Atlantic,  and  he  came  back  from  Canada  and  the  United 
States  impressed   with  the  hope  that  we  may  never  do  any- 


20  A  Recent  Visit  to  America. 

thing  to  forfeit  our  position  as  the  friends  and  natural  leaders 
of  the  English-speaking  race  throughout  the  world. 

The  lecture  was  illustrated  by  large  photographs  of  scenery, 
by  geological  specimens,  and  by  diagrams,  which  were  explained 
by  the  lecturer. 


21 


■x,rd  February,    1885. 


Robert  Young,  Esq.,  C.E.,  in  the  Chair. 


Thomas  Workman,  Esq.,  read  a  Paper  on 

EASTERN   REMINISCENCES,  WITH  LANTERN  AND 
PHOTOGRAPHIC  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


22 


yd  March,  1885. 


R.  Lloyd  Patterson,  Esq.,  J.P.,  in  the  Chair. 


J.  H.  Greenhill,  Esq.,  read  a  Paper  on 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER 
BY  ELECTRICITY. 

And  Repeated  {by  request  of  the  Council)  on  $th  March,  when 
Dr.  Everett,  F.R.S.,  presided. 


Frictional  Electricity  is  always  of  high  tension,  but  of  small 
quantity.  Thermo-Electricity  has,  up  to  the  present,  been  of 
comparatively  low  tension,  but  of  large  quantity,  whereas  Voltaic 
and  Magnetic  Electricity  may  combine  within  certain  limits 
both  tension  and  quantity- 
Metals  in  their  relation  as  conductors  of  electricity  may  be 
compared  to  pipes  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  but  with  this 
notable  difference,  that  whereas  pipes  of  a  given  diameter  or  bore, 
whether  made  of  lead,  iron,  copper,  or  fire-clay,  will  convey  an 
equal  quantity  of  water  at  a  given  pressure,  metallic  conductors 
of  electricity  vary  enormously  in  this  respect.  For  instance,  a 
pure  copper  wire  will  conduct  about  seven  times  as  much 
electricity  of  a  given  tension  or  pressure  as  an  iron  wire  of  the 
same  size  ;  hence  if  iron  cables  were  used  instead  of  copper,  they 
would  require  to  be  of  much  larger  size  where  much  current 
would  be  passed  along,  as  in  the  case  of  central  district  lighting. 
No  economy  in  the  first  cost  would  therefore  arise,  and  it  is  this 
difficulty  which  operates  so  strongly  in  preventing  stations  for 
the  supply  of  electricity  being  established. 


Electric  Li glit.  23 

Any  fatal  accidents  which  have  occurred  have  invariably 
arisen  with  high  tension  currents,  but  it  is  noteworthy  that 
currents  of  a  certain  tension  may  be  practically  harmless  if 
continuous  or  unbroken,  whereas  the  same  "pressure"  may 
produce  most  serious  results  if  intermittent  or  alternating  ;  in 
other  words,  if  there  are  periods  of  cessation  in  the  flow  of  the 
current,  or  if  it  is  made  to  pass  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the 
opposite.  The  Board  of  Trade  stipulated,  in  the  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  for  permitting  companies  to  supply  electricity  from 
central  stations  for  domestic  use,  that  the  tension  for  direct 
currents  inside  the  house  should  not  exceed  300  volts  (the  volt 
is  a  term  applied  to  the  unit  of  tension),  whereas,  with  alternating 
currents,  the  limit  should  not  exceed  100  volts.  One  advantage 
gained  in  the  use  of  high  pressure  is  that  the  sectional  area 
of  the  copper  wires  for  conducting  the  electricity  may  be 
much  less  than  what  would  be  necessary  for  low  tension,  thus 
reducing  the  first  cost  of  the  installation  ;  and,  up  to  certain 
limits,  there  is  greater  economy  in  the  working  ;  but  on  the 
other  hand  there  are  certain  objections  to  very  high  tension 
(besides  the  danger),  as  the  light  produced  when  arc  lights  are 
employed  is  of  an  unpleasant  blue  or  violet  colour. 

Frictional  Electricity,  because  of  its  high  tension,  has  not  been 
used  to  any  great  extent,  except  for  experimental  purposes,  or 
for  the  explosion  of  mines  ;  but  latterly  a  new  field  has  been 
opened  for  its  employmeut  by  a  little  apparatus  for  lighting 
gas. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  although  the  so-called  "  storage"  of 
electricity  has  created  a  great  deal  of  interest  of  late,  yet  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  "  bottling  up"  has  been  known  for  centuries 
in  respect  to  Leyden  jars,  whereas  the  "  storage"  of  the  present 
day  is  not  a  material  accumulation  of  the  current,  but  merely 
changing  the  chemical  condition  of  lead  plates  and  the  acid  in 
which  they  are  immersed,  by  the  action  of  a  current  of  electri- 
city when  passed  through  them,  and  it  is  the  tendency  for  the 
lead  plates  and  acid  to  return  to  their  original  condition,  which 
again  gives  rise  to  new  electrical  currents  when  a  connection  is 
made  to  permit  the  currents  to  flow.     The  action  which  takes 


24  Electric  Light 

place  in  the  lead  plates  and  acid  in  the  act  of  charging  and  dis- 
charging, is  as  follows,  according  to  Dr.  Frankland  (see  the 
report  published  in  "  The  Electrician"  of  31st  March,  1883): 
"  Occluded  gases  play  no  part,  practically.  The  active  material 
on  lead  plates  is  lead  sulphate.  The  initial  action  in  charging 
the  battery  is  the  electrolysis  of  sulphuric  acid  into  hydrogen, 
sulphuric  anhydride,  and  oxygen.  The  hydrogen  decomposes 
the  lead  sulphate  on  the  negative  plate  into  spongy  lead  and 
sulphuric  acid,  whilst  the  oxygen  decomposes  the  lead  sulphate 
on  the  positive  plate  into  lead  peroxide  and  sulphuric  anhydride. 
All  sulphuric  anhydride  is  at  once  converted  into  sulphuric  acid. 
In  discharging,  the  initial  action  is  again  the  electrolysis  of 
sulphuric  acid,  which  restores  the  coating  of  the  two  plates  to 
the  original  condition  of  lead  sulphate.  As  the  charging  of  a 
cell  is  attended  with  the  liberation  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  its 
discharge  with  the  abstraction  of  this  acid  from  the  liquid  con- 
tents of  the  cell,  it  is  only  necessary  to  ascertain  the  specific 
gravity  and  consequent  strength  of  the  acid,  to  determine  the 
amount  of  charge  in  a  cell  at  any  given  moment,  provided  that 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  acid  in  the  charged  and  uncharged 
conditions  of  the  cell  be  previously  known.  In  the  case  of  a 
cell  with  which  Frankland  experimented,  each  increase  of  0-005 
in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  dilute  acid,  meant  a  'storage'  of 
available  energy  equal  to  20  amperes  for  one  hour." 

"  Thermo-electricity,"  by  reason  of  its  low  tension,  has  only 
been  used  for  electro  plating,  as  in  this  process  high  tension  is 
not  admissible.  "  Voltaic  electricity"  has  been  employed  to  a 
limited  extent  for  electric  lighting ;  but  one  serious  drawback 
to  its  general  adoption  for  this  purpose  is  the  great  expense 
entailed,  as  electricity  produced  by  the  consumption  of  zinc  and 
acid  in  a  battery  costs,  in  round  numbers,  about  ten  times  more 
than  the  same  amount  of  electricity  obtained  by  the  use  of  a 
dynamo  machine. 

Soft  iron,  after  being  magnetised,  loses  nearly  all  its  magnetism 
as  soon  as  the  exciting  agent  is  removed  ;  but  it  retains  a 
very  minute  trace,  although  perhaps  not  sufficient  to  indicate 
its  presence  to  a  marked  degree,  and  it  is  this  residual  trace 
which  plays  so  important  a  part  in  dynamo  machines. 


and  Transmission  of  Power.  2  5 

All  magnets  have  innumerable  "  lines  of  force,"  as  they  are 
technically  called,  in  their  vicinity;  and  unmistakable  evidence 
of  their  existence  is  obtained  when  iron  filings  arc  brought 
within  their  influence.  The  filings  cluster  more  densely  near 
the  ends  of  the  magnet  than  at  the  centre,  and  they  appear  to 
arrange  themselves  in  arcs  of  curves  from  one  extremity  to  the 
other.  In  Fig.  No.  3  on  the  screen,  a  novel  arrangement  of 
apparatus  is  shown,  consisting  of  a  magnet  held  between  two 
sheets  of  glass.  There  is  a  third  sheet  of  glass  fastened  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  others,  thus  allowing  a  space  in  which 
iron  filings  can  be  scattered  ;  thus  the  process  in  which  they 
arrange  themselves  in  the  direction  of  the  lines  offeree  can  be 
observed. 

Soft  iron  or  steel  may  not  only  be  magnetised  by  proximity 
to  another  magnet,  but  it  may  also  be  acted  upon  to  a  far  greater 
extent  by  wrapping  insulated  wire  upon  it,  and  sending  a  current 
along  the  wire.  If  the  current  is  again  passed  along  the  wire- 
in  the  opposite  direction,  the  end  which  was  formerly  a  North 
Pole  is  now  a  South.  Faraday  made  the  discovery  that  if  a  coil 
of  wire  with  its  ends  connected  together  was  moved  in  a  certain 
manner  near  to  a  magnet,  a  powerful  current  was  generated  in 
the  wire.  Of  course  if  the  ends  of  the  wire  were  not  joined,  no 
current  was  developed,  as  in  all  cases  where  a  current  passes 
along  a  wire,  the  circuit  must  be  completed,  either  by  direct 
connection  of  the  ends,  or  by  the  interposition  of  some  con- 
ducting medium,  such  as  the  earth  or  liquids,  more  especially 
if  the  latter  are  acidulated.  Even  in  the  case  of  'arc"  electric 
lighting,  although  it  may  at  first  sight  appear  as  if  the  circuit 
was  broken  between  the  carbons,  as  indicated  by  Fig.  4  on 
the  screen,  yet  the  continuity  of  the  conducting  medium  is 
maintained  by  the  intensely  heated  air  at  the  point  of  sepa- 
ration, and  by  the  particles  of  carbon  which  jump  across  the 
space.  As  the  polarity  of  the  magnet  can  be  changed  by 
reversing  the  direction  in  which  the  exciting  current  flows,  so 
can  the  direction  of  the  current  in  the  coil  be  altered  by  changing 
the  position  of  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  In  Fig.  5,  the  coil  is 
supposed  to  move  from  left  to  right,  or  from   the  North  pole 


26  Electric  Light 

of  the  magnet  to  the  South.  The  current  flows  in  the  ring 
downward  in  the  side  nearest  to  us.  When  the  ring  approaches 
the  centre  of  the  magnet,  the  current  gradually  gets  weaker,  by 
reason  of  the  fewer  number  of  "  lines  of  force"  being  embraced 
within  it.  The  current  begins  to  circulate  in  the  ring  in  the 
opposite  direction,  after  the  centre  of  the  magnet  has  been 
passed.  The  intensity  at  which  the  current  flows  in  the  ring  is 
due  to  two  things,  namely  the  speed  at  which  the  movement  is 
made  along  the  magnet,  and  the  "  strength"  of  the  magnet 
itself.  A  similar  result  occurs  if  the  ring  is  made  to  move  in 
the  arc  of  a  circle  between  the  poles  of  a  horse-shoe  magnet,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  In  the  next  diagram  (Fig.  7),  the  horizontal 
lines  between  the  poles  of  a  horse-shoe  magnet  are  supposed  to 
represent  the  "  lines  of  force"  ;  it  will  be  observed  that  when 
the  ring  is  perpendicular  to  these  lines,  it  encircles  the  largest 
number  ;  but  when  angled,  the  number  decreases,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  fall  in  the  potential  of  the  current. 

It  is  possible  to  obtain  all  the  effects  of  a  magnet,  although 
no  iron  or  steel  may  be  present.    If,  for  instance,  a  wire  is  coiled 
into  a  ring  or  helix,  and  a  current  is  caused  to  traverse  it,  the 
air  space  in  the  centre  becomes  filled  with  magnetic  lines  of 
force.    Some  electrical  machines  are  constructed  in  this  manner, 
so  that  lightness  of  the  moving  parts  and  ventilation  may  be 
obtained,  besides  avoiding  what  are  termed  Foucault  or  wasteful 
currents,  which  sometimes  arise  if  iron  is  employed  without  due 
precaution  having   been  taken   in  the  construction.      In   the 
earlier  machines,  these  wasteful  currents  in  the  iron  itself  proved 
highly  objectionable,   causing  much  power  to  be  absorbed  use- 
lessly ;  but  in  good  machines  of  the  present  day,   iron   is  em- 
ployed with  great  advantage,  and  without  any  wasteful  currents 
being  generated  to  signifv. 
Machines  may  be  divided  into  two  classes— direct  current  and 
alternating-*^  these  may  be  subdivided  into   magneto  and 
dynamo  generators.     In  direct  current  machines,  the  electricity 
always  flows  along  the  conductor  in  one  direction,   but  with 
alternating  dynamos^the  current  flows  in  one  direction,  and 
then  in  the  reverse,  but  the  changes  in  direction  amount  to  an 
immense  number  per  minute,  up  to  ten  or  twenty  thousand. 


and  Transmission  of  Power.  zj 

In  magneto  machines,  the  magnets  are  permanent  steel  01 
but  in  dynamos  the  magnets  are  of  iron,  with  coils  of  wire 
wrapped  upon  them,  and  the  magnetism  is  produced  by  currents 
of  electricity  passing  along  the  wire  :  such  currents  may  either 
be  produced  by  the  machine  itself,  or  by  a  separate  "exciting" 
machine  or  battery.  Again,  in  direct  current  dynamo  machines 
in  which  the  magnets  are  excited  by  their  own  currents,  the 
magnets  may  be  coiled  with  comparatively  thick  wire,  and  made 
to  receive  all  the  current  generated,  which,  after  passing  along 
the  coils  surrounding  the  magnets,  proceeds  to  the  lamps  or 
external  circuit,  thence  back  to  the  machine.  These  are  termed 
"series"  machines.  Instead  of  the  magnets  having  a  com- 
paratively short  length  of  thick  wire,  thus  producing  but  few 
turns,  they  may  have  an  immense  length  of  fine  wire  coiled 
upon  them,  and  returning  direct  to  the  revolving  armature 
(which  is  the  name  applied  to  the  rotating  coils  of  wire  in  which 
the  currents  are  generated),  with  a  separate  set  of  conductors 
leading  to  the  lamps  ;  thus  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the 
current  generated  in  the  armature  passes  round  the  magnet.-,  in 
consequence  of  the  fineness  of  the  wire  and  its  extreme  length. 
These  are  termed  "shunt  wound''  machines.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  small  amount  of  current  which  passes  round  the 
magnets  in  a  "  shunt."  machine  is  quite  as  effective  as  the  large 
or  total  amount  of  current  which  flows  round  the  magnets  of 
a  "series"  machine,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  numb, 
turns  in  the  case  of  a  "shunt"  arrangement,  as  one  ampere 
(the  unit  applied  to  quantity)  passing  along  one  hundred  turns 
of  wire  on  a  magnet  is  as  effective,  practically,  as  one  hundred 
amperes  passing  once  round  the  iron.  Frequently  machines 
have  their  magnets  coiled  both  with  a  fine  "shunt '  wire  and 
a  thick  "series"  one,  and  the  current  passes  along  both,  but  in 
inverse  ratios  to  the  relative  resistances.  They  are  thence 
termed  "compound,"  and  are  generally  employed  for  incandes- 
cent lighting,  as  they  are  more  nearly  self-regulating,  provided 
a  regular  speed  is  maintained,  whereas  with  "shunt"  machines 
it  may  happen  that  if  a  great  number  of  lamps  are  -witched  off, 
too  much  current  passes  through  the  remainder,   thus  injuring 


28  Electric  Light 

or  utterly  destroying  them.  The  action  of  a  dynamo  machine  is 
as  follows: — When  the  armature  is  caused  to  rotate,  the  residual 
magnetism  in  the  iron  induces  a  feeble  current  in  the  revolving 
coils  ;  this  current  passes  along  the  wire  encircling  the  magnets, 
and  strengthens  the  magnetism,  which  in  turn  induces  a  stronger 
current.  Thus  an  action  and  reaction  take|  place,  but  with  such 
amazing  rapidity  that  practically  the  machine  is  enabled  to 
generate  its  maximum  strength  of  current  instantaneously. 

I  have  referred  to  both  the  "  arc"  and  "  incandescent"  forms 
of  electric  light.  The  former  is  that  produced  by  the  separation 
of  two  carbons  after  the  current  has  been  established  ;  it  meets 
with  great  resistance  at  the  point  of  separation,  and  thereby 
heats  up  the  ends  of  the  carbon  to  an  enormous  temperature, 
thus  producing  a  light  of  intense  brilliancy.  Both  carbons 
consume  away,  but  not  at  the  same  rate.  The  one  at  which  the 
current  enters  from  the  machine,  and  called  the  "  positive" 
carbon,  is  consumed  twice  as  fast  as  its  neighbour  or  "negative" 
carbon.  The  "positive"  has  a  concave  or  hollow-shaped  end, 
whereas  the  negative  is  pointed.  A  portion  of  the  positive  is 
carried  to  the  negative  by  the  action  of  the  current.  This  is 
only  the  case  when  direct  currents  are  used,  but  with  alternating 
currents  both  carbons  consume  alike. 

With  "  incandescent"  lighting,  the  lamp  consists  of  a  small 
glass  globe,  from  which  all  the  oxygen  has  been  exhausted. 
Inside  the  globe  there  is  a  fine  filament  of  a  carbonised  material, 
made  by  different  inventors  from  various  products,  but  in  the 
final  condition  reduced  to  carbon.  The  current  traverses  this 
filament,  which  being  of  considerable  resistance,  becomes  heated 
to  whiteness,  and  thus  gives  off  a  beautifully  clear  and  soft  light 
With  reference  to  the  power  required  to  drive  an  electric 
machine  employed  for  generating  currents  of  electricity  for 
"  arc"  or  for  "  incandescent"  lighting,  the  same  power  will 
produce  about  ten  times  the  aggregate  light  with  an  "  arc" 
compared  to  "  incandescent,"  hence  it  is  more  economical  where 
large  spaces  have  to  be  illuminated  ;  but  for  confined  spaces, 
especially  where  there  is  not  much  head  room,  the  arc  light  is 
far  too  brilliant.    Under  these  conditions,  the  loss  of  power  can 


and  Transmission  of  Power.  29 

be  submitted  to  in  the  employment  of  the  "incandescent"  light. 
As  a  rule,  one  actual  horse-power  will  give  from  1,500  to  i,Noo 
candle  power  by  arc  lighting,  or  from  160  to  180  candles  by 
incandescent  lamps.  Another  system  of  lamp,  somewhat  be- 
tween the  arc  and  the  incandes'cent,  is  what  has  been  termed 
"  semi-incandescent."  It  consists  of  a  thin  rod  of  carbon  which 
is  caused  to  press  against  a  heavy  block  of  the  same  or  other 
material,  and  the  light  is  emitted  where  the  two  unite  ;  but 
this  method  has  not  been  much  employed. 

The  method  in  which  an  installation  of  arc  lighting  is  carried 
out  is  quite  different  from  that  which  has  to  be  adopted  for 
incandescent.  In  the  former,  the  lamps  are  arranged  in  "  series," 
that  is,  the  current  is  driven  through  the  first  lamp,  then 
through  the  second,  and  so  on,  finally  returning  to  the  machine. 
The  quantity  of  electricity  required  is  always  the  same  whether 
one  or  forty  lamps  are  used,  but  the  potential 'or  pressure  of  the 
current  has  to  be  increased  for  every  lamp.  With  incandescent 
lighting,  a  portion  of  the  current  is  sent  through  each  lamp 
independently  of  its  neighbour.  The  cables  are  arranged  in 
parallels,  very  similar  to  the  sides  of  a  step-ladder,  and  the 
incandescent  lamps  are  attached  between  them,  thus  being 
analogous  to  the  steps  of  the  ladder.  It  is  obvious  by  this 
arrangement  that  the  pre s stir e  or  potential  of  the  current  should 
remain  constant,  but  the  quantity  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  lamps,  ten  lamps  requiring  ten  times  as  much  current 
as  one  lamp. 

Now,  as  regards  the  danger  of  fire  in  connection  with  electric 
lighting,  there  is  no  artificial  mode  of  illumination  so  safe  if 
properly  installed,  and  none  so  dangerous  if  erected  in  ignorance 
of  what  is  necessary.  The  danger  arises  from  what  I  may  term 
the  insidious  nature  of  the  current.  If  there  is  a  leak  in  a  gas 
pipe,  it  can  generally  be  detected  without  the  reprehensible 
method  of  trying  for  it  with  a  light,  but  there  may  be  a  condition 
of  affairs  with  an  improperly  erected  installation  of  the  electric 
light  which  will  give  no  warning  before  damage  is  done.  For 
instance,  cables  may  be  dangerously  near  to  iron  without  being 
properly  protected;  in  course  of  time  they  may  come  into  metallic 


3<d  Electric  Light 

contact  with  the  iron,  and  serious  results  may  happen.  Now 
it  is  possible  so  to  arrange  matters  that  even  if  all  the  cables  or 
wires  in  the  building  were  adjacent  to  metallic  materials,  no 
serious  harm  could  happen  ;  and  the  method  is  to  insert  in 
various  parts  of  the  building  safety  fusible  connections,  so  that 
if  any  accidental  "  short-circuiting"  should  occur,  the  safety  fuse 
would  instantly  melt,  and  thus  stop  all  further  progress  of  the 
current.  Another  ingenious  method  is  by  using  patent  safety 
cut  outs,  which  consist  of  a  magnet  and  counter  weight  or 
spring.  The  latter  overpowers  the  magnet's  influence  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  but  if  the  current,  from  any  cause, 
increases  beyond  its  normal  strength,  the  power  of  the  magnet 
is  increased,  and  overcomes  the  weight  or  spring,  and  thus  stops 
the  current  altogether.  Again,  the  cables  and  wires  may  all  be 
well  protected  from  any  external  metallic  fittings,  and  yet  there 
may  be  danger  of  the  wires  getting  very  hot  by  reason  of  them 
being  far  too  small  in  sectional  area  for  the  current  they  have 
to  carry.  The  fusible  connections  are  equally  effective  in  this 
event. 

As  to  the  advantages  of  using  the  electric  light  for  mills, 
factories,  business  premises,  and  private  houses,  there  are 
numerous  cases  where  electricity  is  infinitely  superior  and  very 
much  cheaper  than  gas  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  many 
places  where  gas  is  cheaper,  and  good  enough  as  an  illuminant. 
Wherever  power  is  available,  either  by  water  or  steam,  then 
the  electric  light  is  by  far  the  best,  especially  if  the  hours  of 
lio-hting  are  sufficient  to  permit  only  a  small  per-centage  of 
interest  on  first  cost  to  fall  upon  each  hour's  lighting.  Flour 
mills,  which  generally  work  all  night,  are  well  adapted  for  the 
electric  light,  whereas  large  factories,  whose  ceilings  are  so  low 
that  arc  lights  are  not  suitable,  and  where  light  is  required  for 
only  a  few  hours  daily,  even  in  the  winter  months,  do  not  offer 
such  a  good  opportunity  to  make  the  incandescent  electric  light 
pay.  Again,  in  shops,  the  cost  of  gas  may  possibly  be  somewhat 
less  than  the  electric  light,  especially  if  power  has  to  be  specially 
provided,  but  the  gain  annually  in  the  preservation  of  the  fragile 
goods  by  the  use  of  the  electric  light  compared  to  the  destruction 


and  Transmission  of  Power. 


3i 


caused  by  gas,  (not  to  speak  of  the  unhealthiness  by  the  latter 
to  the  employes),  is  so  enormous,  that  many  firms  who  have 
adopted  electricity,  in  London  and  elsewhere,  have  increased 
the  original  installations  four-fold.  With  respect  to  the  employ- 
ment of  incandescent  lamps  in  houses.  I  have  had  personal 
experience  of  the  benefit  arising  by  the  use  of  electricity  over 
other  artificial  modes  of  lighting,  as  I  have  had  the  electric  light 
in  my  house  for  several  months,  with  most  satisfactory  results. 
A  careful  perusal  of  the  following  table  will  no  doubt  prove 
instructive.  It  was  read  by  Mr.  Crompton  at  the  Health 
Exhibition  in  London  ;  the  results  were  the  work  of  Dr. 
Meymott  Tidy  and  others  : — 


Heat 

Cubic 

produced 

Burned  to  give  light  of  12 

Cubic  feet 

Cubic  feet 

feet  of 

Cubic  feet 

in  lbs. 

candles,  equal  to  120 

of  Oxygen 

of  air 

Carbonic 

of  air 

of  water 

grains  per  hour. 

consumed. 

consumed. 

Acid 
produced 

vita  ted. 

raised    I  o° 
Farht. 

Cannel  Gas 

3"3° 

16-50 

2-OI 

217-50 

I95-00 

Common  Gas 

5'45 

I7-25 

3-2  1 

348-25 

278  60 

Sperm  Oil 

475 

2375 

3-33 

35675 

233-50 

Benzole 

4-46 

22*30 

3  '54 

376-30 

232-60 

Paraffin 

6-8i 

34^5 

4'5° 

+84*05 

361*90 

Camphine 

6-65 

33-25 

477 

510-25 

325   IO 

Sperm  Candles    ... 

7*57 

37-85 

577 

614-85 

35I70 

Wax  Candles 

8-41 

42-05 

5  "9° 

632-25 

383*10 

Stearic  Candles    ... 

8-82 

44-IO 

6-25 

669-10 

37470 

Tallow  Candles    ... 

12*00 

6o-oo 

873 

933-Qo 

505'40 

Incandescent        ) 

I3-80 

Electric  Light ) 

none 

none 

none 

none 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  that  bad  as  gas  may  be,  it  is  not 
nearly  so  injurious  as  oil  and  candles,  but  the  electric  light  is 
far  superior  to  them  all. 

With  reference  to  the  use  of  electricity  as  a  transmitter  of 
power,  the  machinery  employed  is  a  double  set  of  dynamos, 
practically  the  same  as  used  in  electric  lighting.  By  driving 
one  machine,  the  current  is  generated,  and  by  allowing  this 
current  to  pass  through  another  machine,  its  armature  revolves, 


32  Electric  Light 

and  either  propels  a  car,  or  turns  other  machinery.  When 
electricity  is  employed  for  the  propulsion  of  tramcars,  the 
current  may  be  conveyed  along  an  insulated  rail  or  cable,  and 
collected  by  the  running  vehicle  by  means  of  a  brush  of  copper 
wires  made  to  press  on  the  conducting  rail.  As  a  rule,  only 
from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  original  power  can  be  utilized  when 
transmitted  by  electricity,  but  even  this  small  percentage  may 
be  most  valuable  in  certain  cases,  especially  if  the  original  power 
is  obtained  from  a  waterfall  which  would  otherwise  go  to  waste, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  electric  tramway  at  Portrush. 

Another  method  tor  making  use  of  electricity  for  motive 
power  is  by  using  accumulators  or  storage  batteries.  The 
objection  to  these  at  present  is  their  weight  and  size,  but  I 
believe  there  is  a  great  future  for  the  employment  of  storage 
batteries,  and  it  would  not  surprise  me  to  find  the  tramcars  of 
Belfast  and  other  towns  propelled  by  electricity  before  many 
years  pass  by.  Storage  batteries  are  of  immense  service  where 
temporary  stoppages  of  the  machinery  occur,  or  for  the  regu- 
lation of  the  light  when  the  power  is  of  a  fluctuating  nature  ; 
also,  where  a  few  lights  are  required  to  be  kept  in  operation  all 
night. 

The  lecture  was  illustrated  by  numerous  photographs  thrown 
on  a  screen  by  dissolving  lanterns,  operated  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Welch. 
Not  only  were  there  diagrams  for  shewing  the  special  parts  of 
the  machines,  but  the  various  types  of  the  leading  dynamos  of 
different  construction  were  illustrated.  The  experiments,  named 
by  Mr.  Greenhill  in  the  early  part  of  the  paper,  were  most 
successfully  carried  out. 

At  the  conclusion,  on  the  second  evening,  Prof.  Everett,  F.R.S., 
in  proposing  a  vote  of  thanks,  said,  that  he  felt  great  pleasure 
in  presiding  that  night,  and  he  was  very  much  pleased  that  the 
lecture  had  been  repeated,  as  it  gave  him  and  others  who  were 
not  present  on  the  first  evening,  an  opportunity  of  hearing  it  on 
the  second  occasion.  He  had  to  congratulate  Mr.  Greenhill  for 
the  lucid  explanations  of  what  some  might  think  rather  complex 
matters,  and  for  the  successful  way  in  which  the  experiments 


and  Transmission  of  Power.  -,  i 

had  been  carried  out.  He  was  sure  that  it  must  have  been  a 
matter  of  surprise  to  many  to  witness  the  very  steep  gradient 
which  the  small  electric  car  had  been  able  to  ascend,  and  he 
also  wished  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  audience  to  the 
extremely  small  dimensions  of  the  dynamo  which  Mr.  Greenhill 
had  constructed  for  his  experiments,  but  which  proved  so 
remarkably  powerful. 


34 


2$th  March,  1885. 


Joseph  J.  Murphy,  Esq.,  in  the  Chair. 


J.  Brown,  Esq.,  read  a  Paper  on 
FORMATION  OF  A  STALACTITE  BY  VAPOUR. 


The  reader  described  a  curious  phenomenon  which  he  had 
observed  during  the  electrolysis  of  the  double  chloride  of 
aluminium  and  sodium  fused  in  a  small  porcelain  crucible 
provided  with  a  porous  partition.  The  anode  was  of  carbon, 
and  the  cathode  platinum-foil. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  vapour  was  given  off,  especially 
from  about  the  anode,  forming  a  white  smoke  and  depositing  a 
white  substance,  doubtless  mainly  hydrated  aluminium  chloride, 
on  the  carbon  rod,  and  about  the  mouth  of  the  crucible, 
ultimately  closing  up  the  latter  all  but  a  small  hole,  through 
which  the  vapour  poured  rapidly.  From  this  hole  there  grew 
out  a  beautifully  delicate  little  tube  about  1^  inch  long,  and 
tapering  from  about  I  inch  at  the  base  to  TV  inch  in  the  middle 
of  its  length,  after  which  it  increased  in  diameter,  and  also 
flattened  out  owing  to  the  vapour-jet  coming  close  over  the 
bend  of  the  platinum-foil  cathode,  which  seemed  to  cause,  by 
some  kiud  of  eddy  current,  a  flattening  of  the  stream  of  vapour. 

Soon  afterwards  the  supply  of  vapour  slackened,  and  there 
was  a  corresponding  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  tube  in  the 
last  quarter-inch  of  its  length  till  the  end  became  almost  closed. 
The  formation  of  this  tube  seems  quite  analogous  to  that  of  the 
ordinary  tubular  lime-carbonate  stalactite  deposited  from  drop- 
ping water  by  contact  with  the  atmosphere  ;  only  we  have  here 
a  tubular  deposit  of  hydrated  aluminium  chloride  by  the 
combination,  at  the  edge  of  the  growing  tube,  of  the  water- 
vapour  in  the  air  with  the  anhydrous  chloride  contained  in  the 
vapour-stream, 


35 


i^th  March,  1885. 


Joseph  J.  Murphy,  Esq.,  in  the  Chair 


William  Workman,  Esq.,  read  a  Paper  on 

VENTILATION  AND  HEATING  OF  CHURCHES  AND 
DRYING  ROOMS. 


Heating  and  ventilation  are  mostly  in  inverse  ratio  to  one 
another.  If  ventilation  be  good,  heat  is  little,  and  draughts 
great,  coughs,  both  loud  and  deep,  vie  with  the  speaker  for  the 
attention  he  should  have,  and  never  fail  to  get  more  than  an 
intelligent  audience  should  give  to  inarticulate  sound.  If  heat 
be  good,  carbon  acid  rapidly  accumulates,  and  heads  nod  more 
familiarly  than  reverently  towards  him  who  desires  their  lively 
attention.  The  problem  to  be  solved  may  be  thus  stated  : — How 
to  obtain  air  without  coughs,  and  heat  without  headaches  ; — or, 
ventilation  without  draughts,  and  warmth  without  running  it 
to  waste  through  ventilators. 

I  suppose  a  church  or  assembly-room  to  be  air-tight  as  buildings 
go,  that  there  be  no  ventilating  openings  except  where  indicated, 
and  that  the  seams  of  the  ceiling,  if  sheeted  with  wood,  be  fairly 
close  and  tight.  At  one  end  the  heating  apparatus  is  placed. 
There  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  inside  the  building 
instead  of  attached,  should  circumstances  make  that  arrange- 
ment desirable.  To  the  heating  chamber  a  flue  leads  to  supply 
fresh  air.  Opening  below  the  level  of  the  apparatus  from  it 
ascends  another  close  to  the  level  of  the  ceiling,   where   it  dis- 


36  Ventilation  and  Heating 

charges  freely  the  hot  air  into  the  building.  The  outlets  for 
the  cold  air  are  through  the  floor,  numerous  and  moderate  in 
size,  opening  into  a  flue  below  the  floor,  and  carried  to  an  up- 
right flue,  ending  at  or  above  the  top  of  the  building  like  a 
chimney.  The  expected  result  from  this  arrangement,  tracing 
the  air  from  its  inlet,  is — the  air  being  admitted  below  the  level 
of  the  heating  apparatus — none  of  the  heated  air  is  likely  to 
escape  from  a  blow-down  ; — also,  haying  a  flue  full  of  heated  air 
of  considerable  height,  force  is  added  to  the  current  in  pro- 
portion to  the  height.  When  discharging  into  the  church 
according  to  the  law  of  lighter  fluids,  it  will  float  on  the  colder 
air,  forming  a  sheet  of  warm  air  close  under  the  ceiling.  This 
will  constantly  be  supplied  and  displaced  downwards  by  the 
continuous  flow  of  hot  air  from  the  flue,  until  ultimately  all  the 
original  cold  air  is  displaced  by  the  warm  air.  While  this  is 
going  on  above,  the  coldest  air  is  continuously  being  driven 
down  through  the  openings  in  the  floor,  carried  through  the 
horizontal  flue  to  the  upright  one,  where,  still  having  some 
ascending  power  from  the  remains  of  its  heat  derived  from  the 
apparatus  and  that  added  to  it  by  the  assembly,  it  will  assist  in 
keeping  up  the  circulation.  The  draught  towards  an  outlet  for 
air  is  of  a  very  different  nature  to  that  from  an  inlet,  being  more 
diffused  and  tending  to  flow  in  radii  towards  the  centre,  namely, 
the  outlet.  Those  from  an  inlet  may  pass  for  a  considerable 
distance  in  an  unbroken  stream,  and,  if  passing  in  with  much 
velocity,  may  stir  up  a  wide  area  of  draught  by  its  friction. 
This  may  be  observed  on  a  stormy  night  by  opening  a  window 
half-an-inch  wide  when  the  wind  is  blowing  against  it :  this 
will  stir  the  whole  air  of  a  moderate  sized  room  so  that  a  draught 
may  be  felt  in  almost  any  part  of  it.  The  two  flues,  when  no 
heat  is  being  used,  would  still  act  to  some  extent  as  ventilators. 
In  the  case  of  a  room  full  of  people,  if  there  were  only  a  very 
slight  current  at  first,  it  would  soon  increase  by  the  heated  air 
from  the  assembly  passing  up  the  outlet  flue,  the  pure  cool  air 
being,  as  it  were,  pulled  in  up  the  inlet  flue.  The  air  in  the 
building  should  be  as  much  as  possible  under  the  same  condi- 
tions as  in  that  a  diving-bell,  where  the  only  escape  is  at  the 


of  Churches  and  Diyitig  Rooms.  37 

bottom.  The  same  plan,  it  would  seem  to  me,  would  be  the 
most  economical  method  of  applying  heat  in  drying  rooms  for 
yarn,  &c,  as  none  but  the  coolest  air  could  escape,  and  the 
amount  of  hot  air  admitted  could  be  regulated,  so  that  no  air 
would  leave  the  apartment  until  completely  saturated  with 
vapour.  By  the  ordinary  method  in  use,  for  heating  both  drying 
rooms  and  churches,  the  hottest  air  immediately  makes  its 
way  to  the  highest  part  of  the  building,  and  escapes  by  the 
nearest  outlet  before  it  has  done  much  of  its  intended  work. 
A  method  which  has  been  successfully  tried  in  our  iron  war 
ships,  but  not  yet  in  our  churches — that  is,  to  coat  the  interior 
with  a  non-conducting  paint — would  be  worth  the  experiment ; 
it  would  likely  prove  a  means  of  saving  fuel  and  adding  con- 
siderably to  comfort.  Every  one  knows  how  much  more 
comfortable  a  new  house  seems,  and  no  doubt  is,  after  it  has 
been  papered  and  painted,  and  how  one  will  almost  be  inclined 
to  shiver  on  going  into  a  new  house  with  its  bare  plastered 
walls.  It  is  not  a  mere  imagination  that  drawing  the  curtain 
close  adds  to  the  comfort  of  a  sitting-room  on  a  cold  winter 
night.  The  curtains  are  really  like  blankets,  only  more  distant 
from  the  body  than  would  be  comfortable  in  bed.  Let  anyone 
try  sleeping  in  a  room  with  the  blind  up  in  the  cold  weather 
instead  of  drawn  down.  The  difference  in  temperature  will  be 
quite  perceptible  without  the  help  of  a  thermometer,  a  difference 
hardly  to  be  expected  from  a  thin  piece  of  cotton  hangin. 
front  of  the  window,  or  the  loosely-fitting  slips  of  a  Venetian 
blind.  We  have  all  noticed  the  dew  forming  on  the  carafe 
of  cold  water  on  a  dining-table.  Often  it  will  trickle  down  in 
streams.  Did  anyone  ever  notice  the  table-cloth  or  napkin  in 
that  state,  or  even  damp,  from  the  same  cause  ?  In  former  days 
tapestry  must  have  added  materially  to  the  comfort  of  rooms, 
acting  as  a  non-conductor  between  the  cold  walls  of  the  building 
and  the  bodies  of  its  inmates. 


38 


April  \\th,  1885. 


W.  H.  Patterson,  Esq.,  in  the  Chair. 


The  Rev.  Robert  Workman,  B.D.,  read  a  Paper  on 

LAND  TENURE  AND  CULTURE  IN  ANCIENT 
IRELAND. 


The  Rev.  Mr.  Workman  in  the  first  half  of  his  paper  endeavoured 
to  show  that  all  the  peoples  of  Christendom  originally  held  the 
land  in  common,  and  that  the  institution  now  known  as  "  the 
village  community"  prevailed  amongst  them.  This,  he  said, 
was  originally  the  condition  of  Ireland.  In  Ireland  every 
"community"  became  a  clan,  and  the  chief  soon  gained  a  position 
of  great  power.  In  the  primitive  period,  the  members  of  the 
clan  were  comparatively  independent  of  the  chief,  who  was 
merely  their  headman  or  leader  ;  but  by  the  sixteenth  century 
the  chief  had  become  chief  lord  and  absolute  owner  of  the  land, 
which  he  rack-rented.  Having  referred  to  the  circumstances 
which  brought  about  this  change,  Mr.  Workman  made  a 
lengthened  and  interesting  reference  to  some  curious  customs 
pertaining  to  agriculture  that  existed  among  the  ancient  Irish. 
It  was  perfectly  evident,  he  said,  that  only  a  small  part  of  Ireland 
was  cultivated  during  the  16th  century.  If  they  were  to  credit 
the  high  authority  of  Sir  W.  Petty,  the  population  at  that  period 
could  not  have  been  very  much  above  a  million.  Such  a 
population  did  not  require  a  large  area  of  tilled  land,  and  no 
works  of  supererogation  were  performed  by  them.  From  an 
early  period,   moreover,  Ireland  was  a  country  of  forests.     In 


Land  Tenure  in  Ancient  Ireland.  3  » 

1542,  "the  English  troops,  penetrating  to  the  centre  of  Ulster, 
found  it  a  jungle.  Tyrone  County  is  described  as  not  containing 
one  single  castle,  nor  yet  one  town  walled,  but  full  of  wood, 
great  bogs,  and  waters,  here  called  loughs."  The  English,  whose 
appetites  were  proverbially  good,  could  hardly  understand  how 
the  Irish  got  a  living  in  so  desolate  a  land.  In  1560,  Lord 
Fitzwilliam,  Governor  of  Dublin,  in  great  fear  about  rebellion, 
wrote — "  The  country  is  for  the  most  part  a  wilderness,  but  the 
desolation  is  no  security  ;  the  Irish  would  keep  the  field  when 
the  English  would  starve.  No  men  of  war  ever  lived  the  like, 
or  others  of  God's  making,  touching  feeding  and  living."  In 
ancient  times  the  good  cheer  of  Tara  consisted  in  devouring 
great  quantities  of  meat,  for  neither  bread  nor  drink  were 
mentioned.  Nor  did  bread  appear  to  have  been  the  staff  of 
life  to  the  Irish  people  of  the  1 6th  century.  Export  of  hides 
was  the  mark  of  a  pastoral  flesh-eating  people  ;  and  about  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century  "  the  Irish  sent  great  quantities  of 
raw  and  tanned  hides  and  sheepskins  and  some  furs  to  Antwerp, 
also  some  coarse  linen  and  woollen  cloths."  Fish  were  exchanged 
with  France  and  Spain  for  wares  by  chieftains  on  the  coast. 
They  must  suppose  that  after  the  Plantation,  Ulster  rapidly 
prospered  in  agriculture,  and  became  largely  a  grain-producing 
country  ;  but  the  records  of  the  exportation  from  Belfast  in  1663 
showed  by  their  preponderance  of  flesh,  tallow,  and  skins  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  land  was  untilled.  Having  further 
referred  to  the  character  of  the  exports  at  later  periods,  with  a 
view  of  indicating  the  condition  of  the  land  as  regards  cultivation 
and  the  pursuits  of  the  people,  Mr.  Workman,  in  conclusion, 
said  the  subject  affords  fresh  illustration  of  the  persistent 
tenacity  of  the  characteristics  that  distinguish  the  different  races 
of  mankind.  We  are  assured  that  the  negro  race  is  as  old 
as  the  Egyptian  monuments,  and  we  know  that  the  Jews  have 
continued  to  be  the  world's  greatest  merchants  for  more  than 
2,000  years.  So  here  in  Ireland  we  may  regard  the  eagerness 
with  which  our  peasantry  cling  to  the  soil  as  a  survival  of  the 
spirit  of  the  ancient  village  community,  the  absolute  owner  ol 
its  own  land.     Moreover,  the  pastoral  instinct  has  prevailed  over 


40  Land  Tenure  in  Ancient  Ireland. 

the  agricultural  amidst  all  the  changes  of  Irish  history.  At  the 
present  day,  Ireland  is  specially  a  grazing  country,  and  the 
Irishman  has  a  proverbial  liking  for  cattle,  and  pigs,  and  horses, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  least  successful  agriculturists 
of  the  Old  World,  whilst  we  are  told  that  it  is  the  Scotch- 
man or  the  Englishman,  rather  than  the  Irishman,  who  becomes 
the  great  cultivator  of  the  boundless  grain-growing  prairies  of 
the  New  World. 


BELFAST 

Natural  1bistor\>  anfc  philosophical  Society 
$ 

Officers  and  Coimcil  of  Management  for  1885-6. 

!gv  ezibent : 
WILLIAM  H.  PATTERSON,  M.R.I.A. 

'gHce-'g'resi&enfc : 

JOHN  ANDERSON,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    I     Prof.  J.  D.EVERETT,  M. A.,  F.R.S. 
ROBERT  MacADAM,  Esq.  THOMAS  WORKMAN,  Esq. 

treasurer : 

JOHN  BROWN,  Esq. 

<£tbvcmcm : 

THOMAS  WORKMAN,  Esq. 

§ccrcfarn : 

ROBERT  M.  YOUNG,  B.A. 

Qouncil : 

PROFESSOR  CUNNINGHAM,  M.D. 

JOHN  ANDERSON,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

ROBERT  MacADAM,  Esq. 

PROFESSOR  J.  D.  EVERETT,  M.A..  FJEL.S. 

THOMAS  WORKMAN,  Esq. 

JOHN  BROWN,   I 

JAMES  WILSON,  Esq. 

PROFESSOR  E.  A.  LETTS,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.E. 

JOSEril  JOHN  MUIU'IIY,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

ROBERT  LLOYD  PATTERSON.   1 

WILLIAM  II.  PATTERSON,  Esq.,   M .K.I. A. 

WILLIAM  SWANSTON,  Esq.,   F.G.S. 

JOSEPH  WRIGHT,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

ROBERT  YOUNG,  Esq.,  C.E. 

ROBERT  M.  YOUNG,  B.A. 


42 


SHAEEHOLDEBS. 

[*  Denotes  holders  of  three  or  more  Shares.] 

Allen,  W.  J.  C,  J.P.,  (Representatives  of),  Faunoran,  Green- 
island. 

Andrews,  Michael  (Representatives  of),  Ardoyne,  Belfast. 

Andrews,  Thomas  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  &c,  Fortwilliam  Park,  do. 

Andrews,  Samuel,  J. P.,  Victoria  Street,  do. 

Archer,  H.,  Wellington  Place,  do. 
Anderson,  John,  J.P.,  F.G.S.,  Hillbrook,  Holywood. 
*Alexander,  James,  J.P.  (Representatives  of),  Holywood. 

*Bateson,  Sir  Thomas,  Bart.,  M.P.,  J.P.,   D.L.,  Belvoir  Park, 

Belfast. 

*Batt,  Thomas  G.  (Representatives  of),  Belfast. 
Bland,  Robert  Henry,  Lisburn. 

Bottomley,  Henry  H.,  Garfield  Street,  Belfast. 

*Bottomley,  William,  J.P.  do. 

Brett,  C.  H.,  Chichester  Street,  do. 

Bristow,  James  R.,  Northern  Bank,  do. 

Barbour,  James,  Falls  Foundry,  do. 

Boyd,  William,  Blackstaff  Mill,  do. 

Boyd,  W.  S.,  Donegall  Quay,  do. 

Brown,  John  Shaw,  J.P.,  Bedford  Street,  do. 

Brown,  John,  Bedford  Street,  do. 

Brown,  William  K.,  Rushmere,  do. 

Burden,  Henry,  M.D.,  Alfred  Street,  do. 

Burnett,  John  R.,  Gamble  Street,  do. 

*Campbell,  James  (Representatives  of). 

Campbell,  John,  Lennoxvale,  Belfast. 

Connor,  Charles  C,  White  Linen  Hall,  do. 

Carson,  John,  Church  Lane,  do. 


Shareholders. 


43 


*Charley,  John  (Representatives  of),  Finaghy,  Belfast. 
*Clermont,  Lord,  Ravensdale  Park,  Newry. 
Coates,  Victor,  Rathmore,  Dunmurry. 
*Charters,  John  (Representatives  of). 

Crawford,  William,  Calender  Street,  Belfast. 

Cuming,  James,  M.D.,  Wellington  Place,  do. 

Cahvell,  Alexander  McD.,  College  Square  North,  do. 
Cunningham,  Robert  O.,  M.D.,  F.L.S.,  Queen's  College,    do. 

Clarke,  Edward  H.,  Elmwood,  do. 

Darbishire,  James  M.,  Lombard  Street,  do. 

♦Donegall,  Marquis  of,  K.P.,  &c.  (Representatives  of),  London. 
Drennan,  Dr.,  Chichester  Street,  Belfast. 

*Drummond,  Dr.  James  L.  (Representatives  of),  do. 

Duffin,  Charles,  J. P.,  Waring  Street,  do. 

Dunville,  William,  J. P.  (Representatives  of),  Calender  St.,  do. 
*Downshire,  Marquis  of,  Hillsborough  Castle,  Hillsborough. 
Dixon,  Thomas  S.,  York  Street,  Belfast. 


Emerson,  William,  Donegall  Quay, 

Everett,  J.  D.,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  Queen's  College, 

Ewart  William,  J.P.,  M.P.,  Bedford  Strcxt, 

Ewart,  W.  Quartus,  Bedford  Street, 

*Fenton,  Samuel  G.,  J. P.  (Representatives  of), 

Ferguson,  Henry.  M.D.,  Fisherwick  Place, 

Forsythe,  R.  H.,  Holywood. 

Finlay,  William  Laird,  Windsor, 

Finlay,  William  Laird,  jun.,  Royal  Avenue, 

Fitzgerald,  Professor  Maurice,  Queen's  College, 

Fagan,  John,  F.R.C.S.I.,  Glengall  Place, 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 

do. 
do. 

Belfast, 
do. 
do. 
do. 


Garrett,  Thomas  (Representatives  of),  Gamble  Street,        do. 
*Gctty,  Edmund  (Representatives  of),  do. 

Girdwood,  H   Mercer,  Broughton  Maxwell,  Manchester. 
Gordon,  Alexander,  M  D.,  Howard,  Street,  Belfast. 

♦Grainger,  Rev.  John,  D.D.,  Broughshane,  Ballymena. 


44  Shareholders. 

Gray,  Robt.  (Representatives  of),  College  Square  North,  Belfast. 

Gordon,  Robert  W.,  J.P.,  Falls  Road,  do. 
Greer,  Thomas,  J.P.,  M.P.,  Seapark,  Carrickfergus. 

Gray,  William,  C.E.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mount  Charles,  Belfast. 

Greenhill,  John  H.,  New  King  Street,  do. 

Hogg,  John,  Academy  Street,  do. 
*Hamilton,  Hill,  J.P.  (Representatives  of),  Mount  Vernon,  do. 
*Hancock,  John,  J. P.,  Lurgan. 

Henderson,  Robert  (Representatives  of),  High  Street,  Belfast. 
*Henry,  Alexander,  Manchester. 

*Herdman,  John  (Representatives  of),  College  Sq.  North,  Belfast. 

Hind,  James,  Durham  Street,  do. 

Hind,  John,  J:P.,  Durham  Street,  do. 

Hind,  John,  jun.,  College  Street  South,  do. 

Heyn,  James,  A.M.,  Ulster  Chambers,  Waring  Street,  do. 

*Houston,  John  B.,  J.P.,  D.L.,  Orangefield,  do. 
Herdman,  John,  J.P.,  Carricklee  House,  Strabane. 

Hamilton,  Sir  James,  J.P.  (Reps,  of),  Waring  Street,  Belfast. 

Harland,  Sir  Edward  J.,  Bart.,  J.P.,  Ormiston  do. 

Hodges,  John  R,  J. P.,  M.D.,  F.C.S.,  Queen's  College,  do. 

Hyndman,  Hugh,  LL.D.,  Waring  Street,  do. 

Henderson,  James,  Donegall  Street,  .  do. 
Holford,  T  &  A.,  Cern  Abbas,  Dorsetshire. 

Jackson,  Thomas,  C.E.,  Corn  Market,  Belfast. 

Jaffe,  John,  J. P.,  Donegall  Square  South,  do. 

Jaffe,  Otto,  Donegall  Square  South,  do. 
•Johnston,  Sir  William  G.,  J.P.,  D.L.,  College  Sq.  North,  do. 

Johnston,  Samuel  A.,  Jennymount  Mill,  do. 

Kennedy,  James,  Falls  Road,  do. 

Keegan,  John  J.,  High  Street,  do. 

*Kinghan,  Rev.  John,  Altona,  Windsor,  do. 

Lanyon,  Sir  Charles,  J.P.,  The  Abbey,  Whiteabbey. 

Lepper,  F.  R.,  Ulster  Bank,  Belfast. 

Lakin,  Mr.  John,  Tamworth. 


Shareholders.  45 

Letts,  Professor  E.  A.,  Queen's  College,  Belfast. 

Lytle,  David  B.,  Victoria  Street,  do. 

Lemon,  Archibald  D.,  J.P.,  Edgecumbe,  Strandtown. 

•Macrory,  A.  J.  (Representatives  of),  Ulster  Chambers,  Belfast. 
Mitchell,  W.  C,  J. P.,  Tomb  Street,  do. 

•Mitchell,  George  T.  (Representatives  of),  do. 

Montgomery,  Thomas,  J. P.,  Ballydrain  do. 

Moore,  James,  J. P.  (Representatives  of),  Dalchoolin,  Craigavad. 
•Mulholland,  Andrew,  J.P.,  D.L.  (Representatives  of),  Belfast. 
*Mulholland.  J.,  J.P.,D.L.,  M.P.,  Bally  waiter  Park,  Ballywalter. 
Mullan,  William,  J. P.,  Victoria  Street,  Belfast. 

Murney,  Henry,  J.P.,  M.D.,  Donegall  Square  East,  do. 

Musgrave,  James,  J.P.,  Ann  Street,  do. 

Murray,  Robert  (Representatives  of),  Arthur  Street,  do. 

*Murphy,  Joseph  John,  2,  Osborne  Park,  do. 

'Murphy,  Isaac  James,  Armagh. 

Musgrave,  Henry,  Ann  Street,  Belfast. 

Musgrave,  Edgar,  Ann  Street,  do. 

Moore,  James,  Donegall  Place,  do. 

*M'Calmont,  Robert,  London. 
*M'Cammon,  Thomas,  Dublin. 

MClure,  Sir  Thomas,  Bart.,  M.P.,  V.L.,  J.P.,  Belmont,  Belfast. 
M'Cance,  Finlay,  J. P.,  Suffolk,  Dunmurry. 
*M'Cance,  J.  W.  S.  (Representatives  of),  Suffolk,  Dunmurry. 
*M'Cracken,  Francis  (Representatives  of),  Donegall  St..  Belfast. 
MacAdam,  Robert,  College  Square  East,  do. 

Macllwaine,  Mrs.  Jane  (Representatives  of),  do. 

Macllwaine,  Rev.  Canon,  D.D.,  M.R.I. A.  (Representatives  of), 
Mount  Charles,  Belf.m. 

•MacLaine,  Alex.,  J. P.,  Queen's  Elms,  do. 

M'Gee,  James,  High  Street, 
M'Neill,  George  Martin,  Beechleigh,  Windsor,  do. 

Neill,  John  R.,  Holy  wood. 

Patterson,  E.  Forbes,  High  Street,  Belfast 

Patterson,  Mrs.  M.  E.,  Ardmore  Terrace,  Holywood. 


46  Shareholders. 

Pirn,  Edward  W.,  High  Street,  Belfast. 
Pim,  George  C.  (Representatives  of),  Corporation  Street,   do. 

*Pirrie,  John  M.,  M.D.  (Representatives  of),  do. 

Purdon,  Thomas  Henry,  M.D.  (Representatives  of),  do. 

Patterson,  William  R.,  Lower  Crescent,  do. 

*Patterson,  R.  Lloyd,  J.P.,  Corporation  Street,  do. 

Patterson,  William  H,  M.R.I.A.,  High  Street,  do. 

Purser,  Professor  John,  M.A.,  Queen's  College,  do. 

Porter,  Drummond,  Waring  Street,  do. 

Patterson,  Richard,  High  Street,  do. 

Patterson,  David  C,  Corporation  Street,  do. 

Riddel,  William,  Ann  Street,  do. 

Rowan,  John,  York  Street,  do. 

Ritchie,  W.  B.,  M.D.,  J.P.,  The  Grove,  do. 
Ross,  William  A.,   J.P.    (Representatives  of),  Clonard,   Falls 

Road,  Belfast. 

Rea,  John  Henry,  M.D.,  Great  Victoria  Street,  Belfast. 

Robertson,  William,  J.P.,  Bank  Buildings,  do. 

Simms,  F.  B.,  39,  Prospect  Terrace,  do. 

Sinclair,  Thomas,  M.A.,  J.P.,  Tomb  Street  do. 

Suffern,  John,  Windsor,  do. 

Suffern,  William,  Windsor,  do. 

Steen,  Dr.  Robert,  Ph.D.,  Academical  Institution,  do. 
Smyth,  John,  jun.,  M.A.,  C.E.,  Milltown,  Banbridge. 
Smith,  Travers,  Sandymount. 

Swanston,  William,  F.G.S.,  King  Street,  Belfast 

♦Tennent,  R.  J.,  J.P.,  D.L.  (Representatives  of),  Rushpark,  do. 

*Tennent,  Robert  (Representatives  of),  Rushpark,  do. 

Thompson,  Robert,  J.P.,  Fortwilliam  Park,  do. 

Thomson,  Charles,  College  Gardens,  do. 
*Thompson,  James,  J.P.,  Macedon,  Whiteabbey. 
*Thompson,  Nathaniel  (Representatives  of). 

*Thompson,  William  (Representatives  of),  Belfast. 

*Turnley,  John  (Representatives  of),  do. 

Torrens,  James,  J.P.,  Wellington  Place,  do. 


Shareholders. 


47 


Valentine,  James  W.,  Custom  House  Square,  Belfast. 

Valentine,  G.  F.,  The  Moat,  Strandtown,  do. 

Workman,  John,  J. P.,  Windsor. 

Wilson,  James,  Old  Forge,  Dunmurry. 

Walkington,  Thomas  R  ,  Waring  Street,  Belfast. 

Workman,  William,  Corporation  Street,  do. 

Workman,  Rev.  R.,  Newtownbreda. 

Wilson,  John  K.,  Donegall  Street,  Belfast. 

*Wilson,  Robert  M. 

*Workman,  Thomas,  Bedford  Street,  Belfast. 

Wallace,  James,  Ulster  Bank,  do. 

Ward,  Fras.  D.,  J.P.,  Bankmore,  do. 

Wright,  Joseph,  F.G.S.,  Donegall  Street,  do. 

Workman,  Charles,  M.D.,  do. 

Workman,  Rev.  R.,  Glastry,  Kirkcubbin. 

Walkington,  D.  B.,  Windsor,  Belfast. 

Workman,  Francis,  College  Gardens,  do. 

Young,  Robert,  C.E.,  Donegall  Square  East,  do. 

Young,  Robert  M.,  B.A.,  Donegall  Square  East,  do. 


HONORARY    MEMBERS. 
Robinson,  Hugh,  Donegall  Street,  Belfast. 

Stewart,  Samuel  A.,  F.L.S.,  North  Street,  do. 

Tate,  Professor  Ralph,  F.G.S.,  Adelaide,  South  Australia. 


ANNUAL    GUINEA    SUBSCRIBERS. 

Bruce,  James,  J.P.,  Calender  Street,  Belfast. 
Corry,  Sir  Jas.  P.,  Bart.,  M.P.,  J. P.,  Dunraven,  Windsor,  do. 
Craig,  James,  J.P.,  Calender  Street,  do. 

Carr,  James,  Ulster  Bank,  do. 

Dinnen,  John,  Chichester  Street,  do. 

Dunville,  Robert  G.,  D.L.,  J.P.,  Calender  Street,  do. 

Glass,  James,  Bedford  Street,  do. 

Graham,  O.  B.,  J. P.,  York  Street,  do. 


48  Annual  Subscribers. 

Loewenthal,  J.,  Linenhall  Street,  Belfast. 

Lynn,  William  H.,  C.E.,  Calender  Street,  do. 

Lindsay,  John,  Donegall  Place,  do. 

Matier,  Henry,  J.P.,  Clarence  Place,  do. 

Milligan,  S.  F.,  I,  Royal  Terrace,  do. 

Mulholland,  J.  R.  T.,  J.P.,  do. 

Murray,  Robert,  Corporation  Street,  do. 

M'Auliffe,  George,  J. P.,  Calender  Street,  do. 

M'Causland,  John  K.,  Lennoxvale,  do. 

Oakman,  Nicholas,  Prospect  Terrace,  do. 

Pring,  Richard  W.,  Corn  Market,  do. 

Redfern,  Peter,  M.D.,  Professor  Queen's  College,  do. 

Reade,  Robert  H.,  York  Street,  do. 

Rogers,  John,  Victoria  Street,  do. 

Seeds,  William,  Corn  Market,  do. 

Stannus,  A.  C,  Chichester  Street,  do. 

Taylor,  Sir  David,  J.P.,  Windsor,  do. 

Tate,  Alexander,  C.E.,  Queen's  Elms,  do. 

Taylor,  John  Arnott,  M.A.,  Bridge  Street,  do. 

Watt,  R.,  Victoria  Street,  do. 

Wolff,  G.  W.,  Queen's  Island,  do. 

Ward,  John,  F.G.S.,  Lennoxvale,  do. 

Ward,  Marcus  J.,  Bankmore,  do. 

Young,  Samuel,  Talbot  Street,  do. 


fi